Caste

I

Introduction

Caste, rigid social system in which a social hierarchy is maintained by the heredity of defined status in society, and allowing little mobility out of the position into which an individual is born. The term, first used by Portuguese traders visiting India in the 16th century, derives from the Portuguese casta, meaning family lineage, or race. It is almost always applied to the complex system which developed under Hinduism in India, although caste-like systems have evolved in other cultures and religious groups.

II

Evolution of the Caste System

All societies throughout history have developed social hierarchies. These hierarchies have almost always derived from occupations and their perceived relative status. As societies evolved from hunter-gatherer existence, through settled agrarian systems, development of trade, and industrialization, new occupations were created and shifts in status occurred. The caste system represents, in essence, a formalised, overtly codified social hierarchy, deriving from and subject to the changing economic and political requirements of evolving societies. While typified by its rigidity in terms of the lack of mobility for the individual, over time, the caste system as a whole has shown shifts associated with just the changes in society outlined above. A unique feature of caste, however, has been its intimate association with religion.

The religious sanction and framework given to the caste system in India have made it a particularly powerful social tool—a rebellion against caste becomes a rebellion against religion, with consequences in this and future lives—and has been a factor in its remarkable endurance to this day. The caste system appears to have evolved some time after the arrival into northern India of the Indo-European peoples known as the Aryans, a nomadic people, around 1500 bc, after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization. No written records exist of this period (the Aryans had no writing) but it would appear from clues from later sources based on ancient oral tradition that they encountered resistance from indigenous peoples, and were involved in a protracted period of warfare with local peoples before emerging victorious. Aryan society was already split into warriors, priests, and the general populace, an unremarkable form of social organization. On vanquishing the indigenous peoples, who are described as darker skinned and with different features from the Aryans (it is possible that this refers to the Australoid and Negroid characteristics still seen in certain peoples in India), anxiety to maintain the low status of the conquered and to retain racial purity are the most likely reasons for the addition of a fourth group of servants to the social system, made up of the non-Aryan peoples. The racial aspect of caste is clearly indicated in the term that emerged to describe the four groups— varna, the Sanskrit word for colour. The four varnas, in descending order of status, were then the Kshatriyas (the king and warriors), the Brahmins (priests), the Vaishyas (who, with the rise of trade and agriculture, became the farmers and merchants), and the Shudras (servants).

Further changes were to occur before the system ossified. Most importantly, the Brahmins, pointing out their importance in sanctioning the divinity of the monarch, and vesting him with his regal authority, were able to manoeuvre to the top of the scale. As society developed (after the heights reached by Harappan culture, the Aryan period initially represented a considerable step backwards), the area under settled agriculture expanded, and trade and the arts began to flourish, resulting in the slow rise of the Shudras into the roles of cultivators of the land, and skilled artisans. Those who performed the most menial tasks, such as the sweepers, and those who collected waste, were left out of the caste system altogether, becoming outcastes or Chandalas. A system of subcastes, or jatis, evolved, related to each occupation. It is at the level of jatis that the caste system has primarily operated, with individuals of a particular jati constrained in various social aspects, especially marriage, to remain within their jati. As social and economic conditions changed, the relative position of some jatis as a whole has shifted to reflect the changing status of the occupations concerned.

This detailed link with occupation is interesting. Occupations tended to be hereditary, the son learning from the father. It was a small step, then, for caste, related to the status of the individual and their role in society, to become strictly hereditary, thus further assuring the supremacy of the Brahmins. But it is this most insidious aspect of caste that was to trap millions of individuals effectively in an impoverished, uneducated, and stigmatized state for generation after generation.

The religious exposition of this social and political phenomenon is found in the earliest of the sacred texts of Hinduism, the Rig Veda (dating back to about 300 bc but representing a far older oral tradition), which described the division of the primeval Man, Purusha, into four parts, the mouth becoming the Brahmins, the arms, the Kshatriyas, the legs, the Vaishyas, and the feet, the Shudras. The roles of the four varnas were then established as a law of nature. But without offering some hope of salvation for all, no religion can succeed. This was provided, in Brahmin orthodoxy, by the ideas of karma (roughly translatable as “fate”) and rebirth. While, in an individual's earthly life, his or her caste was decided by the caste of the parents, the fact of being born into a particular caste was no accident. It was dependent on one's deeds in past lives. The Bhagavad-Gita stresses the idea of duty. The duty of an individual was dependent on caste. Thus a “good” shudra would improve his karma by a lifetime of devotion to his or her masters. Likewise, charity was part of the duty of the higher castes. Through the carrying out of these caste-defined duties, it was possible to be reborn into a higher caste. The ultimate purpose of all this was moksha, or release from the cycle of life and death, through acquiring a spiritual insight that relied, in traditional interpretations of Hinduism, on being born a Brahmin. Thus all could have hope, and the route to salvation was in doing the duty expected of one's caste.

It is important to stress here a key difference between the workings of caste and socio-economic class. A class system could be said to be, broadly speaking, related to material wealth. This is not so for the caste system. Brahmins, being spiritually superior, were expected to renounce such worldly pleasures. It was, however, the duty of other castes to provide the Brahmins with food and other material requirements. Nevertheless, with education confined chiefly to the higher castes, there has, in effect, been a correlation between caste and class.

Much of the stigma against the lower castes and, in particular, the outcastes, or Chandalas, has been strengthened and justified through the religious concept of “ritual purity”. Manual work was regarded as essentially unclean, and those associated with it could not be allowed to enter into intimate contact with the higher castes, and in particular with the Brahmins, who performed religious ceremonies before which they, too, had to purify themselves by bathing. Thus, in addition to the taboo on intercaste marriage, the Chandalas, in particular, were not to be allowed near the preparation of food for higher castes, or even into temples (especially in South India). Eventually their touch, and even their shadows, were considered to be polluting, resulting in the Chandalas becoming so-called Untouchables and even Unapproachables.

As the system evolved, new subcastes or jatis formed with new occupations, and incoming groups of peoples were given a suitable subcast to fit them into the system, although this did not always prove straightforward.

III

The Battle Against Caste

Over the centuries, the caste system has experienced regular and strong attack from within and without, and continues to do so. Applied with varying levels of strictness at varying times, depending on the perceived vulnerability of the Brahmins, it has proved remarkably resilient.

Hinduism is not a clearly defined religion with a founder and a single sacred text. It evolved, in the first instance, through the amalgamation of Aryan ideas with Dravidian concepts, themselves linked to ancient Mesopotamia and other cultures. It has a number of sacred texts, ranging in content from the most profound philosophical thought to the most pragmatic detail of ritual, and with many apparent internal contradictions. Over the centuries, the influence of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam (particularly Sufism), has also shaped thinking broadly termed Hindu. A rich, regional Hindu folk tradition has constantly questioned aspects of orthodoxy. Hinduism, then, espouses a variety of paths and approaches to the Ultimate, which itself has been described as Brahman, the Essence without any attributes, and in the more popular forms of the many gods of Hinduism, such as Shiva and Krishna. Clearly, in its most profound form, there is no place for caste.

Both Buddhism and Jainism represent major rebellions against the caste system, as part of Brahmin orthodoxy and oppression. The egalitarian nature of Sikhism, developed by Guru Nanak in the 16th century, was also a reaction against caste. But within the fabric of Hinduism itself, there have been many individuals and sects who have ignored or condemned caste. The mystics of the Bhakti movement, such as Chaitanya, were oblivious of such considerations, being concerned only in mystic union with God. They happily accepted Untouchables, women, and those from other creeds as their disciples. The most important disciple of the 15th century mystic, Ramananda, a key figure in establishing the worship of Rama as a deity, was Kabir, a Muslim, who became an important poet and mystic in his own right.

Over the centuries, many unknown or unremembered individuals, including many Brahmins, have also fought their own personal battle, often being made outcastes, or even killed, in the process.

In the 19th century, Ram Mohan Roy pioneered a revival of the Vedanta and, in keeping with the spirit of the Upanishads, condemned the caste system. By the 20th century, a number of prominent individuals spoke out against the institution. The battle against caste became part of a greater nationalist struggle: it was, along with the Hindu-Muslim divide (partly perpetuated by the British), seen as a factor that divided Indians. Mohandas Gandhi appealed for the Untouchables to be integrated with the rest of Hindu society. He renamed them Harijans, or “people of God”. Ambedkar set up schools and colleges for Untouchables, and fought for their political rights.

With the coming of independence, a policy of positive discrimination was established guaranteeing a large quota of places in colleges and professional institutions, and in the civil service, to Untouchables, and other depressed classes, now collectively known as “scheduled” castes. The new Indian Constitution enshrined a belief in a secular and egalitarian system, without discrimination by caste or creed. Political organization along caste lines, and often shallow appeals by parties in order to acquire the Harijan vote, have, however, helped little and sometimes positively hindered attempts to reduce the divisions of society. Many government and volunteer organizations continue to fight against prejudice. Social customs and prejudices are hard to counter. Yet some considerable progress has been made.

IV

The Caste System Today

Beyond these efforts, new factors attacking caste are now at play and may prove unstoppable. These are related to India's emergence as a modern, industrial nation, linked by satellite television and computer to the other nations and cultures of the world. The rise of the urban middle classes, with free mixing of sexes, and associating material success rather than caste with social status, has led to erosion of the caste system. Arranged marriages, a key vehicle for the propagation of caste, are declining in number, although many are continuing with the purpose of propagating wealth and status. A significant number of young people in the cities are questioning the system and rebelling against it. Many problems remain, however, in the urban slums and in rural areas, where the issue of caste sometimes further complicates the fight against poverty. The former Harijans or Dalits, as they are now called, continue to be those most needing access to primary health care, clean water, and other basic resources. Of equal importance must be education, which alone can empower those who have been denied it for so long.

The impact of the caste system on the development of India over many centuries is incalculable. The country has produced many great scholars, scientists, and mathematicians. Yet it is possible, for example, that the extreme separation of practical and mental work effected by the caste system has been a factor in the paucity of technological innovation in India. The cost in social suffering has clearly been enormous. The greatest effect on the country as a whole must be the denial of the opportunity for learning and self-improvement to the great majority of the population, and with it the loss of many potential innovators, scholars, and statesmen and women. Caste, like sex discrimination, is on the decline in modern India. But its far-reaching effects may take many years to eradicate.