Circumcision

I

Introduction

Circumcision, surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the human male. Circumcision of males has been widely practised as a religious rite since ancient times. An initiatory rite of Judaism, circumcision is also practised by Muslims, for whom it signifies spiritual purification. Although its origins are unknown, earliest evidence of the practice dates from ancient Egypt (2300 bc), where it is thought to have been used originally to mark male slaves. By the time of the Roman takeover of Egypt (30 bc), the practice had a ritual significance, and only circumcised priests could perform certain religious offices.

II

Tribal Rites

Circumcision appears widely among indigenous peoples of Africa, the Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, Australia, and the Pacific islands. Some form of genital surgery was ritually performed on males among certain indigenous American cultures.

Circumcision is nearly always associated with traumatic puberty rites. Occasionally the severed part is offered as a sacrifice to spirit beings. The operation certifies the subject's readiness for marriage and adulthood and testifies to his ability to withstand pain. Circumcision may also distinguish cultural groups from their uncircumcised neighbours.

III

Religious Rites

In Jewish religious tradition infant male circumcision is required as part of Abraham's covenant with God. According to the Levitical law, every Jewish male infant had to be circumcised on the eighth day after birth under penalty of ostracism from the congregation of Israel. Jews employ a mohel, a man who has the requisite surgical skill and religious knowledge. After a ritual prayer, the mohel circumcises the infant and then names and blesses the child.

Among the Arabs circumcision existed before the time of Muhammad. Although the Koran does not mention it, Islamic custom demands that Muslim males be circumcised before marriage; the rite is generally performed in infancy. Some peoples also practise female circumcision.

Circumcision is absent from the Hindu-Buddhist and Confucian traditions, and in general the Christian Church has no specific doctrine about it. At present the Abyssinian Church alone among Christian bodies recognizes circumcision as a religious rite.

IV

Medical Aspects

Since the 19th century, many English-speaking peoples have adopted the custom of circumcision, primarily for medical reasons. In modern medical practice, circumcision of males is a minor operation usually performed in infancy for hygienic purposes. The incidence among non-Jewish populations of continental Europe, Scandinavia, and South America is low.

The medical case for circumcision is unproved and controversial. Doctors in the 19th century advised the operation for many ailments, including “hysteria”, venereal disease, hypersexuality, and even hiccups. Modern proponents suggest that diseases result from the build-up of smegma, a substance secreted under the foreskin. Also cited is evidence that circumcised populations (especially Jews) display low rates of penile and cervical cancer. Critics reject the validity of these claims, arguing that such disorders are more likely caused by poor hygiene and by contact with multiple sex partners. Perhaps the most convincing studies yet were those carried out in South Africa, Kenya, and Uganda (2006) on whether male circumcision can protect against HIV. The trials showed a 50 to 60 per cent reduction in new HIV infections in heterosexual circumcised men. However, condoms remain the most effective method of preventing HIV infection and experts warned circumcision should not be used as a substitute.