Babylonia

A

The Sumerians

Towards the end of the 3rd millennium bc, the kingdom of Sumer and Akkad covered a vast area ruled by a Sumerian dynasty known as the 3rd Dynasty of Ur. The catalyst in its downfall was the migration of a large group of Semitic nomads, the Amurru, or biblical Amorites, from the Arabian deserts to the west. They captured a number of important cities such as Isin, Larsa, Babylon, and Eshnunna (now Tall al Asmar) where they established new dynasties. About 2000 bc the last ruler of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur was taken captive by the Elamites. The kingdom of Sumer and Akkad disintegrated, and civil war broke out. At first the city of Isin attempted to control Sumer and Akkad, but its authority was challenged by Larsa, some distance to the south, and the two cities were constantly at war. About 1790 bc King Rim-Sin (reigned c. 1823-1763 bc) of Larsa conquered and occupied Isin, an event considered so important that it marked the beginning of a new, though limited, dating era in the scribal annals.

B

Hammurabi

Rim-Sin was unable to exploit his victory, because at the same time in the formerly modest city of Babylon to the north, the ruler Hammurabi came to the fore. As king, Hammurabi combined astute diplomacy and military leadership; he defeated Rim-Sin, as well as the kings of Elam, Mari, and Eshnunna, and about 1760 bc became the ruler of a united kingdom extending from the Persian Gulf to the River Habur. The history of Babylonia is considered to begin with Hammurabi.

An unusually active and capable administrator, Hammurabi gave his personal attention to such details as the cleaning of irrigation canals and the insertion of an extra month into the calendar. He was an outstanding lawgiver; the Code of Hammurabi is one of the most significant legal documents ever uncovered. He was also an inspiring religious leader; during his reign the Babylonian city god Marduk became a recognized leader in the pantheon of deities.

C

The Kassites and the 2nd Dynasty of Isin

During the reigns of Hammurabi and his son Samsu-iluna (reigned c. 1750-1712 bc), who succeeded him, Babylonian civilization reached the zenith of its cultural development and political power. Some of the more important cities of Babylonia began to seek independence, however, and, in the reign of Samsu-iluna, the Kassites first invaded the country. Although Samsu-iluna succeeded in driving them back, they nevertheless infiltrated Babylonia over the following centuries. Samsu-iluna also had to deal with the rebel leader, Iluma-ilum, who founded a dynasty in the southern Babylonian district, bordering on the Persian Gulf, commonly known as the Sea-land.

Under Samsu-iluna’s successors Babylonia suffered a serious decline in power and territory. When, about 1595 bc, a Hittite army penetrated as far south as Babylon and carried off Babylonian prisoners and wealth to far-off Anatolia, the kingdom was thrown into disorder. For a brief period, Babylonia fell under the rule of the dynasty of the Sea-Land. Finally, towards the mid-16th century bc, the Kassite ruler Agum (reigned c. 1570 bc) took over Babylonia and extended its territory from the Euphrates to the Zagros Mountains.

Under Kassite rule, Babylonia once again became a power of considerable importance. At the beginning of the 15th century bc, for example, it was one of the four major powers in western Asia, the other three being the Egyptian, Mitanni, and Hittite empires.

Following Assyria’s recovery of independence from Mitanni domination in the early 14th century bc, its rulers began to interfere in the affairs of Babylonia and sought to control it politically. They were eventually successful, and Babylonia was so weakened that it fell to the Elamites, who invaded it from the east, deposed its Kassite king, and reduced it to a state of vassalage. A revolt broke out in southern and central Babylonia, and a new dynasty, known as the 2nd Dynasty of Isin, was founded. Towards the end of the 12th century bc, Nebuchadnezzar I (reigned c. 1125-1103 bc), one of the Isin kings, defeated the Elamites and attacked Assyria. Not long afterwards large groups of Aramaean nomads migrated to Babylonia. For about two centuries thereafter the country was in a state of political chaos.

D

The Chaldean Period

One of the tribes surrounding Babylonia was the powerful group known as the Chaldeans. They settled and dominated the district along the Persian Gulf. From the 9th to the 6th century bc, the Chaldeans played an important part in shaping the history of Asia; their rulers helped to destroy the Assyrian Empire and, at least for a brief period, established Babylonia, or, as it gradually came to be known, Chaldea, as the dominant power in Mesopotamia.

One of the outstanding Chaldean kings was Merodach-baladan II (reigned 722-710 bc), who fought bitterly and bravely, if unsuccessfully, against four mighty Assyrian monarchs: Tiglath-pileser III (reigned 745-727 bc), Shalmaneser V (reigned 727-722 bc), Sargon II (reigned 722-705 bc), and Sennacherib (reigned 705-681 bc), the destroyer of Babylon. Sennacherib’s successors, Esarhaddon (reigned 681-669 bc) and Ashurbanipal, retained political control of Babylonia in spite of numerous rebellions and defections. In 626, however, when Assyria was in turmoil and menaced by the Medes, the Scythians, and the Cimmerians, a Chaldean named Nabopolassar (reigned 626-605 bc) proclaimed himself King of Babylonia. Allying himself with the Medes, he helped to destroy Assyrian might.

Taking advantage of Assyria’s weakened position, Egypt began to menace Palestine and Syria. In 605 bc Nebuchadnezzar II marched against the Egyptians and defeated them at Carchemish (in modern Syria). Nebuchadnezzar, who reigned for 43 years, extended Babylonian political control over most of Mesopotamia. To students of the Bible he is known as the destroyer of Jerusalem and as the king who took the captive Jews to Babylonia. To archaeologists and historians he is known as the great builder and restorer. He reconstructed Babylon, his capital, in a lavish style and restored many temples throughout Babylonia.

The Babylonian revival did not last for long. Following Nebuchadnezzar’s death in 562 bc, there was a protracted struggle for power among various parties and individuals. In 556 bc Nabonidus, one of Nebuchadnezzar’s governors, became King of Babylonia (reigned 556-539 bc). A somewhat enigmatic figure, he antagonized the influential priestly class of Babylon. Nabonidus left the city of Babylon under control of his son Belshazzar and lived for a while in the city of Harran and later in the oasis of Teima, in the Arabian Desert. In 539 bc the Babylonians were defeated by the Persian king Cyrus the Great, who had defeated Media. Nabonidus was captured at Sippar (near modern Baghdad, Iraq), and the Persians entered Babylon without meeting any resistance. Babylonia was then annexed to Persia and so finally lost its independence.

E

The Babylonian Legacy

More than 1,200 years separated the glorious reign of Hammurabi from the subjugation of Babylonia by the Persians. During this long span of time the Babylonian social structure, economic organization, art and architecture, science and literature, judicial system, and religious beliefs underwent considerable modification, but generally only in details, not in essence. Based almost entirely on the culture of Sumer, Babylonian cultural achievements left a deep impression on the ancient world, and particularly on the Hebrews and the Greeks. Babylonian influence is evident in the works of such Greek poets as Homer and Hesiod, in the work of the Greek mathematician Euclid, in astronomy, in astrology, in heraldry, and in the Bible.