Army

D

East Asia

The legendary Chinese general Sunzi wrote the earliest military treatise, The Art of War (c. 500 bc). In it he described Chinese weapons, command systems, communications, discipline, grade distinctions, strategy, and logistics. Although in later centuries Chinese and Japanese military organization was comparable to that of their Middle Eastern and European contemporaries, the Asian invention of stirrups (by or before the 2nd century bc) had revolutionized mounted warfare by making chariots obsolete. The Battle of Adrianapole (ad 378), in which Huns, Alans, Goths, and Spartans annihilated the Romans, demonstrated the superiority of cavalry to infantry forces.

The Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan in 1190 spearheaded Mongolian advances from the Gobi Desert into the heart of Europe. Their conquests, accomplished with relatively small armies but with innovative military skill, relied on a basic formation of 10,000 mounted warriors, the touman. Around 60 per cent of this force was lightly protected; 40 per cent was armoured. It waged war with hurled missiles, fire, and explosives. Communication was by signal flags and drumbeats. The Mongolian hordes lived off the country, and their tactical deployment relied on surprise attacks—thrusts at the enemy’s flank and rear that preceded heavy cavalry assaults.

VII

Rise of Modern Armies

The fall of Rome in the 5th century and the invasion by northern Europeans that followed formed the background to the development of the feudal system and the disappearance for several centuries of large standing armies in Europe.

A

Middle Ages

Feudalism was based on a concept of local defence, each baron or landowner governing land that had been given to him by the king, and each lord having his own personal protective forces recruited from among men who worked for him. In return, each lord and his men were pledged to annual service to the monarch and could be called on in special instances, as in the defence of Christendom during the Crusades. National armies thus began to appear again.

The Crusades emphasized the need for organization and discipline in opposing a common enemy; as a result, large forces of foot soldiers were constituted. Until the introduction of gunpowder in Europe—supported by the use of crossbows and other weapons—changed the character of war, the ambition of the individual knight engaging in personal combat with his sword diminished the effective use of the army as a unified force.

Throughout Europe during the 14th century, when firearms were introduced, mercenary professional soldiers were recruited by the highest bidder. Such companies, varying in strength from tens to thousands, were the forerunners of modern professional armies. The present Swiss Guard of the Vatican is a direct successor to a 15th-century mercenary company. Among other extant survivors of the mercenary army, one of the most renowned is the French Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for service outside France and composed of diverse ethnic groups. It has seen service in combat all over the world.

Modern counterparts of the mercenary armies of former centuries are the 20th-century international armies such as the 15-nation UN force that fought in Korea from 1950 to 1953, and the many UN peacekeeping forces that have been called to serve in many parts of the world, particularly in Africa and central Europe.

B

Armies in the 16th to 18th Centuries

B

1

Spain

Spain is considered the first modern European country to have established a standing army. The nucleus of this 16th-century force was four infantry regiments of 7,000 men bearing pikes and firearms.

B

2

Sweden

Sweden under King Gustav II Adolph conscripted an army to serve in the Thirty Years’ War. The King improved military efficiency by organizing six or more 150-man companies into regiments and combat brigades and by enforcing strict discipline, which in turn made possible increased mobility. Artillery was integrated into the cavalry and infantry formations.