British Army

I

Introduction

British Army, land element of Britain’s armed forces.

II

Origins

It has been said that there is no such thing as a “British army”, but rather a collection of corps and regiments. Certainly the British Army is unusual in being based on a regimental system, where soldiers tend to remain attached to the same unit throughout their service. This circumstance has its origin in the way that the army was organized in earlier times. A standing army was first created after the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660. Prior to this troops had been recruited for limited periods of time—generally for a single campaign or war. Regiments were raised by individual members of the aristocracy, and generally bore their names, or the name of their commander-in-the-field. Later, in 1751, the infantry regiments were numbered according to an order of precedence. At this time the army was simply divided into “foot” and “horse”, while artillery was handled by the Royal Regiment of Artillery (see Royal Artillery), which was created in 1722 to replace gunners contracted to the Master General of Ordnance that had previously taken responsibility for artillery.

Britain’s parliamentary government was generally suspicious of the army as an institution, fearing that it might be used by the monarch to suppress democracy. Consequently, it was reluctant to fund spending on the army, except in times of war. The peacetime strength of the army during the 18th century was generally less than 20,000 men. In time of war, however, the army grew and developed. During the War of the Spanish Succession the British army put large numbers of troops into the field against the French. The most important theatre of this war was in modern Belgium, where the British and allied forces were commanded by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. In addition to winning great victories on the battlefield, Marlborough was keenly aware of the importance of artillery, intelligence gathering, engineers, and logistical support. Due to his influence, the provision of these vital elements of the army was improved.

III

Development and Reform

In the course of the 18th century the fighting qualities of the British Army gained high repute. Apart from the bravery of its troops, it was renowned for the effectiveness of its musketry—a reputation that has generally been maintained throughout the army’s history (see Small Arms). Although its small size meant that its appearance on European battlefields was governed by its need to cooperate with continental allies, it achieved notable successes in North America and India, particularly during the Seven Years’ War. The defeat of the British in the American War of Independence was due to factors other than the battlefield performance of the army. Throughout its early history the British Army recruited its soldiers from the poorest members of society and, indeed, from among the criminal classes. Enlistment (except for those who joined in time of war) was for life. Discipline was extremely harsh, and punishment by flogging with the cat-o’-nine-tails was routine. Officers were drawn from the ranks of the gentry, and acquired their commissions by a system of “purchase”. Regiments were regarded as very much the “property” of their colonel.

By the end of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars the army had evolved further. New types of soldier, such as light infantry, riflemen, hussars, and even rocket troops, had established themselves as integral elements of the army. However, the army was still relatively limited in size and major engagements, such as the Battle of Waterloo, were fought with the aid of allied contingents. A period of stagnation followed the final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, the effects of which were felt during the army’s next overseas campaign four decades later in the Crimean War. Examples of bad leadership were evident at all levels. Furthermore, the logistical and medical support available was found to be woefully inadequate. As a result, thousands of men suffered needlessly from the ravages of disease, cold, and hunger. The lessons of the Crimean War inspired a period of reform, culminating in a programme carried out by the Liberal Secretary of State for War Edward Cardwell between 1870 and 1881. Abuses such as the purchase of commissions and punishment by flogging were abolished. The term of enlistment was set at 12 years (6 of which were to be in the reserve) instead of life. Most significantly, the regimental system was reorganized. Each regiment would now consist of two battalions, one based at the regimental depot, and one on active service somewhere in the British Empire. Furthermore, in a regularization of an 18th-century development, all regiments were given firm links with specific counties or regions, from which they would henceforward draw their recruits.

Other developments of this period include the substitution of khaki uniforms for the traditional British red coat, and the replacement of muskets—first with single-shot repeaters, then, from 1888, with bolt-action magazine rifles. These changes served the army well during a succession of small colonial wars in the latter part of the 19th century. However, the South African War, also known as the Boer War, exposed inadequacies in British Army training and tactics when faced with opponents armed with modern weapons. Between 1905 and 1912 the Secretary of State for War Richard Haldane instituted another series of reforms. Haldane reorganized existing volunteer formations into the Territorial Army—an army of volunteers that shadowed the regimental organization of the regular army. He also enhanced the army’s medical services. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, the British Army consisted of just over 125,000 men, which, together with approximately 145,000 reserves, made a total of about 270,000 men on mobilization. A British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of 80,000 men—another of Haldane’s creations—was sent to the aid of France and Belgium. This was a tiny force compared with the armies of France and Germany, but its entry into combat effectively committed the British Army to a full-scale campaign on the Western Front.

IV

The World Wars

Lord Kitchener, who took over as Secretary of State for War the day after war was declared in August 1914, realized that the war would last years rather than months. Consequently, he embarked upon a massive recruiting campaign, which brought in almost 2.5 million volunteers. However, it was not until the summer offensive of 1916 that these men were ready to take a major part in the war. Eventually, in 1916, conscription was introduced, making all British males between the ages of 18 and 41 liable for military service. The regular army had been largely destroyed as a fighting force during the campaign of 1914. As a result, the British Army’s central contribution to the allied victory between 1915 and 1918 was made by a blend of Territorials, “Kitchener Army” volunteers, and conscripts. Altogether, 5,399,600 served with the British forces on the Western Front. In addition, 3,576,400 served in other theatres, such as Palestine, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Italy, and the Balkans. World War I brought about a complete revolution in tactics, as armies struggled to come to terms with battlefields dominated by quick-firing artillery, barbed wire, and machine-guns. By the end of the war, the British Army, particularly the BEF under its commander Sir Douglas Haig, had surpassed most of its rivals in the adoption of modern tactics. The BEF pioneered the use of the tank and developed sophisticated “combined-arms” tactics integrating infantry weapons, artillery, and air support (see Military Aircraft), which were to form the basis of all subsequent battlefield practice.

At the cessation of hostilities in November 1918 the army comprised about 3.8 million, but was greatly reduced in size thereafter. Already, in April 1918, it had lost its air component, the Royal Flying Corps, when the Royal Air Force was created. The inter-war years witnessed greatly reduced military spending. However the British Army was gradually mechanized during this period. Horse-drawn transport was replaced with motor vehicles, and cavalry regiments exchanged their mounts for tanks and armoured cars. Belatedly, when the aggressive intentions of Germany had become plain, defence spending rose once more. At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, conscription was reintroduced. The years from 1939 to 1944 saw a steady expansion in the size of the British Army, as it recovered from early defeats and disasters to play a major role in the defeat of the Axis Powers. However, by mid-1944 the necessity of maintaining troops on a variety of fronts, as well as a large air force and navy (see British Navy), had put a massive strain on Britain’s manpower resources. This led to the “cannibalization” of certain army units, in order to provide replacements for others. In the summer of 1945 the army’s strength stood at about 2.92 million. World War II also saw the addition of new types of units to the army’s ranks, notably airborne troops (see Paratroopers) and special forces, intended to strike behind enemy lines. Furthermore, the involvement of the army in campaigns in North Africa and South East Asia prompted it to develop new tactics, techniques, and equipment for desert and jungle warfare. These developments would stand the army in good stead during many of the conflicts that were to ensue in the post-war era.