Ancient Egypt

I

Introduction

Ancient Egypt, homeland of the Egyptian civilization, one of the earliest and greatest civilizations, which began in about 3100 bc, flourished for over 2,000 years up until 1070 bc, and ended in about 30 bc. Ancient Egyptian civilization was remarkable for its richness and sophistication, seen not only in the great monuments that to this day bear witness to the power of pharaohs and the skill of engineers, but also in its evolved system of government, the invention of irrigation and picture-writing, the beginnings of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, and in its pantheon of deities and concepts of life after death, and great artistic skill. So much is this true that the Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the early 5th century bc, observed that “there is no country that possesses so many wonders, nor any that has such a number of works which defy description”.

Modern knowledge about life in ancient Egypt is derived in large measure from the great monuments and tombs that still exist today and from the findings of archaeology, which have revealed a wealth of objects, preserved in the arid climate. A significant facet of Egyptology is the information provided by writings in hieroglyphic script; covering the walls of tombs and temples, obelisks, and columns, and found on clay tablets and in contemporary manuscripts, these writings describe various aspects of life in ancient Egypt, from the greatness of kings to medicinal cures and the minutiae of tax revenue. However, were it not for the Rosetta Stone, this hieroglyphic script might still be indecipherable today.

Ancient Egyptian civilization began around 3,100 bc, when the kingdoms of Lower Egypt (on the Nile delta) and Upper Egypt (south of the delta) were unified by the legendary king, Menes, who ruled from the capital, Memphis. The period known as the Old Kingdom was established in 2686 bc: it was during the Old Kingdom that hieroglyphic writing developed and the great pyramids were built. The Middle Kingdom (1991-1786 bc) was a period of prosperity, when Nubia, taken by conquest, became part of the kingdom of Egypt and trade links in Asia were established. During the New Kingdom (1554-1196 bc), when the capital was moved to Thebes, the Egyptian Empire was at its greatest and Egyptian civilization reached its zenith. (For a more detailed historical account of the country, see Egypt: History.)

II

Egyptian Society

Ancient Egypt owed its stability and prosperity to strong central government and a unifying sense of purpose driven by religious belief. Both were brought about by the power of the pharaoh: as a living god, he was the high priest of every cult in Egypt and ambassador to the gods. Under his kingship, the country was divided into 42 nomes, or districts, each of which had its own local administration and local gods.

The pharaoh was supported by a huge bureaucracy of advisers and officials. Many scribes were employed to administer the land, the law, the army, and temples. They were headed by two important officials, the vizier and the director of the seal. The vizier supervised the nomes and all officials, who reported to him; his office was also an important court of law. Eventually the role of the vizier was split in two, one vizier being appointed for Upper Egypt and another for Lower Egypt. The director of the seal was the treasurer responsible for all goods coming into the royal stores.

The pharaoh was, of course, the ultimate authority. There is little doubt that he took part in the administration, and every Egyptian, rich or poor, had the right of appeal to him. The pharaoh was accepted by all as the ultimate source of justice. He was responsible for making laws and gave lists of instructions to officials, in which it is clear that the pharaoh demanded obedience, but at the same time allowed a limited amount of autonomy.

Slavery was not common in Egypt. (It only became noteworthy during the New Kingdom, when foreign lands were conquered and their inhabitants taken as slaves.) Most ordinary people were farm labourers, some of whom worked for landowners or for the pharaoh. Many others were craftsmen who produced such everyday necessities as bricks, woven mats and baskets, papyrus, tools, utnsils, and cooking vessels. Still others were traders, or boat-owners who provided transport up and down the Nile.

Since there was no market economy in ancient Egypt, payment was made by barter. Any trade that was carried out was also done through bartering, and there was probably a considerable exchange of goods between rural and urban producers. Foreign trade was on a small scale, but did develop in the New Kingdom, with the expansion of Egyptian power. Egypt typically exported grain—its major product—linen and papyrus, in exchange for timber from Lebanon, copper from Cyprus, incense from the East, gemstones from as far away as Afghanistan, and exotic animals, such as monkeys, from the south. Incense trees were even imported by Queen Hatshepsut for transplanting.

III

Land and River

Life in Egypt—which Herodotus aptly described as “the gift of the Nile”—was inextricably linked to its great river, which rises in the mountains of Ethiopia, winds through the Sudan, and flows through Egypt for 1,000 km (620 mi) before fanning out into a delta that feeds into the Mediterranean Sea. Without the Nile, Egypt would be unrelieved desert. However, because of the river, and more specifically its flooding each year, the Nile Valley, a narrow strip of land at no point wider than 27 km (17 mi), became an extremely fertile area and the cradle of a great civilization. This fertile strip divides the Sahara into two: the Eastern Desert, a mountainous region stretching as far as the Red Sea, and the Western Desert, extending far into the heart of northern Africa. The ancient Egyptians called these desert areas Deshret (“red land”), and the Nile Valley, Kemet (“black land”), because of the colour of its fertile alluvial soil. To the ancient Egyptians, the desert was a foreign land into which they ventured only to obtain metals (such as gold), minerals, and gemstones. The Nile Valley, by contrast, was their home: in this fertile green land, they were safe, protected by a host of gods who would unfailingly ensure the punctual onset of the annual flood.

Seasonal rains falling in Ethiopia swelled the upper reaches of the river, with the result that huge quantities of silt, rich in nutrients, were carried downstream and deposited over the plain of the Nile Valley. The height of the flood was important: if it was too low, there might be a famine; if it was too high, the alluvial deposits that fertilized the land would be carried beyond the cultivated strip to the barren desert, where the soil was too poor to produce a good harvest. The Nile flood was important too because its beginning (in July) marked the start of the Egyptian year and coincided with the reappearance of Sirius in the night sky. This star was associated with Isis, the goddess whose tears were believed to cause the flood. The agricultural year was divided into three seasons: the flood; the “going out”, or sowing, season; and the harvest. The civil year was divided into 12 months, each with 30 days, 5 extra days being added at the end of every year.

The importance of water was universal in Egyptian society and the responsibility for its management rested on all people, from the pharaoh, for the taxation it indirectly yielded, to village communities, who probably organized local initiatives, and peasants, who needed to grow their food and pay taxes. The height of the Nile flood was recorded each year on nilometers, steps which led down to the river in increments of cubits to measure the water level. This meant that the state bureaucracy could assess the potential of the harvest, and thus the rate of taxation. All land belonged to the pharaoh, and all taxes were paid to him, apart from that on lands given as gifts to courtiers and temples.

The flood covered the valley floor, leaving villages as isolated islands. After it had receded, however, water had to be kept from running off the fields, or from evaporating before it had fully soaked into the soil. Crops also had to be watered. The Egyptians developed a system of irrigation canals, and, during the New Kingdom, invented the shadoof. This device comprised a bucket attached to a long wooden beam resting on a fulcrum, which allowed water to be raised up to about 2 m (6 ft). This was an important innovation that allowed the Egyptians to increase the amount of land under cultivation by about 15 per cent.

IV

Farming and Rural Life

In September, when the flood waters began to recede, the yearly round of farming began. Irrigation channels had to be repaired and land boundaries, important for calculating tax, had to be remeasured. Much of this work was carried out by corvée, or enforced labour. Once it was completed, sowing could begin. The main crops were wheat, barley, and flax, which was grown for weaving into linen. The cereal crops were sown by spreading the seeds by hand; animals were used to tread them into the ground. Planting took place in October using light wooden ploughs drawn by oxen, or hoes. After planting, work did not stop, since irrigation channels had to be maintained and the crops had to be protected from pests.

The harvest began in April. Wheat was gathered after the overseers of the crops had calculated the expected yield for tax purposes. This was then compared to the actual yield, in order to make sure that none of the crop was dishonestly retained. The crop was then taken to threshing floors where oxen or donkeys trod on it to separate the grain from the straw. After winnowing, the grain was transported to granaries, where it was stored for later consumption. Most of this grain was used to make bread, but some was used as seed corn for the next crop.

Given the fertility of the valley soil, it was possible for a second crop to be planted, usually vegetables or pulses. Other vegetables and fruits (such as figs and dates) were grown on garden land. Trees were planted, for timber was scarce in Egypt, and vines were cultivated, although wine was generally drunk only by the wealthy. Large numbers of livestock—cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry—were also kept, while donkeys were used as the principal transport animals.