Cushite Kingdoms

Cushite Kingdoms, ancient states of Africa, the Nubian kingdoms of Kerma (Cush), Napata, and Meroë (modern Marawi), which were situated along the River Nile in a region of Nubia known in ancient times as Cush (now covering southern Egypt and northern Sudan).

Early trading contacts between the people of northern Nubia and ancient Egypt began in Egyptian pre-dynastic times (c. 5000-c. 3000 bc) and continued throughout the Egyptian Old Kingdom (c. 2647-c. 2140 bc). There is evidence of a large town at Kerma, dating from about 2400 bc, just above the third cataract of the Nile, which seems to have been the capital of an independent Nubian state, later known (like the region in general) as Cush. By the time of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-c. 1801 bc), the relationship between Nubia and Egypt was changing. Egyptian military campaigns, backed up by the construction of mudbrick forts, reached as far south as the second cataract, although Egypt’s interest in the region, with its access to luxury raw materials, apparently remained primarily commercial. At the end of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt’s authority waned, and Kerma reached the peak of its power, only to be crushed during the Egyptian New Kingdom (c. 1540-c. 1196 bc), when the region was occupied as far south as the fourth, or possibly fifth, cataract. During this occupation Nubia was governed by an Egyptian viceroy, called “the King’s Son of Cush”, who had two deputies, a military commander, and a host of other officials to help him. Taxes were collected in the form of luxury items, such as gold, ivory, ebony, precious and semi-precious stones, animal skins, and incense, making Egypt extremely wealthy.

At the end of the New Kingdom, the Egyptian occupation collapsed and by about 850 bc another independent Nubian state, with its capital at Napata near the fourth cataract, had emerged. The Napatan king, Piankhy or Piye, led a military expedition into Egypt and in about 767 bc became the first ruler of the 25th (or Cushite) Dynasty. The Nubian rulers of this dynasty thereby became upholders of the pharaonic tradition which had once held their predecessors under its sway. The best-known king of the 25th Dynasty is Taharqa, who built monuments in both Nubia and Egypt, including a colonnade in the temple of Amon at Karnak. Taharqa became increasingly troubled by Assyria, which defeated the Napatan forces during the reign of his nephew and brought the 25th Dynasty to an end in 671 bc.

However, the kingdom of Napata survived in Nubia and at some point, almost certainly by the end of the 4th century bc, the capital was transferred to the already long-established site of Meroë, situated south of the fifth cataract. Here, the Nubian state continued to survive until its decline in the 1st century ad, which was due in part to the rise of the Kingdom of Āksum, a rival power based in the northern Ethiopian highlands, and in about 350 ad an Aksumite military expedition into Meroitic territory seems to have dealt the final blow to the Nubian kingdom. With such long contact between Cush and Egypt, there was inevitably considerable cultural exchange between the two, although it should be emphasized that the Egyptianization of Nubia was never total. At Kerma there is evidence of acculturation in burial customs, and the use of Egyptian symbols of authority. During the New Kingdom, the great monument builder Ramses II completed the famous temple at Abu Simbel (now situated in Egypt, but then in Nubia), which was dedicated to the Egyptian gods Ra and Amon, as well as to the pharaoh himself. Such temples were a means of promoting the Egyptian religion and upholding Egyptian authority. After Egypt’s withdrawal at the end of the New Kingdom, certain aspects of Egyptian culture survived in Nubia. From the Napatan period, there is evidence of the continuing use of the Egyptian language and hieroglyphs, and it is possible that small groups of Egyptians, perhaps priests, had stayed on in Nubia to promote the continuation of their culture and religion. The Egyptianization of Napata is seen most clearly in the change from earlier mound burials to the adoption of the pyramid as a royal tomb. Meroitic culture continued to show Egyptian influence, with pyramid burials and temples dedicated to Egyptian gods, but also displayed a distinctive Nubian quality, including a Meroitic script, derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, which is still only partially deciphered because the language is not fully understood.

There are many surviving ancient Cushite monuments, including forts such as that at Buhen, which dates from Old Kingdom times, temples and towns, the huge mound graves of Kerma, and the crumbling pyramids of Napata and Meroë. Many lesser sites remain to be investigated by archaeologists. In January 2003 archaeologists working in the Nile Valley announced the discovery of a pit containing a number of buried monuments and finely carved polished granite sculptures representing Cushite rulers. It is believed that the objects were damaged and buried by the Egyptians at the beginning of the first millennium ad.