I.

Introduction

Somalia or Somali Democratic Republic, republic in eastern Africa, bordered on the north by the Gulf of Aden, on the east and south by the Indian Ocean, on the south-west by Kenya, on the west by Ethiopia, and on the north-west by Djibouti. The total area is 637,700 sq km (246,200 sq mi). The capital of Somalia is Mogadishu.

II.

Land and Resources

Somalia has a long coastline, extending for about 3,025 km (1,880 mi), but it has few natural harbours. A narrow coastal plain borders the Gulf of Aden in the north. A series of mountain ranges, with average elevations of between 915 and 2,135 m (3,000 and 7,000 ft), dominates the northern part of the country. To the south, the interior consists of a rugged plateau, ranging in elevation from about 500 m (1,640 ft) to less than 183 m (600 ft) in the extreme south. A wide coastal plain, which has many sand dunes, borders the Indian Ocean. The country’s two major rivers are found on the southern plateau: the Shabeelle in the central area, and the Genale further south.

A.

Climate

The climate of Somalia ranges from tropical to subtropical and from arid to semi-arid desert. Temperatures usually average 27.8° C (82° F), but may be as low as 0° C (32° F) in the mountain areas and as high as 46.7° C (116° F) along the coast. The monsoon winds bring a dry season from September to December and a rainy season from March to May. The average annual rainfall is only about 279 mm (11 in).

B.

Natural Resources

Somalia has few natural resources. The grasslands are suitable only for grazing livestock. The fertile land in the Genale and Shabeelle valleys and in some coastal areas is used for crop farming. Mineral resources are relatively diverse, but have not been exploited. Known deposits include oil, copper, manganese, gypsum, iron, marble, tin, and uranium.

C.

Plants and Animals

Vegetation in Somalia consists chiefly of coarse grass, and stunted thorn and acacia trees. Trees producing the aromatic resins frankincense and myrrh are indigenous to the mountain slopes. In the south there are eucalyptus, euphorbia, and mahogany trees. Wildlife is abundant and includes crocodile, elephant, giraffe, leopard, lion, zebra, and many kinds of poisonous snakes.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Since the start of the civil unrest the country's environment has been neglected as rival factions have fought for political control. Somalia is one of the world's poorest and least developed countries, with 75 per cent (1990) of the labour force dependent on agriculture. Only 1.7 per cent (1997) of the country's land is arable, and 0.3 per cent (1997) is irrigated. Overgrazing, deforestation, and periodic drought have led to desertification. Only 31 per cent (1990-1998 estimate) of Somalia's population currently has access to safe sources of water. As a result, about 75 per cent of the population is afflicted by intestinal parasites. Only 0.3 per cent (1997) of Somalia's land was officially protected before the country's civil war. Even while the central government was functioning, protected areas suffered from poaching, logging, and illegal grazing. The country is inhabited by 32 threatened animal species.

Somalia has ratified an international agreement protecting endangered species. The country has also signed agreements limiting nuclear weapons testing, hazardous waste, and marine pollution.

III.

Population

The vast majority of the population is Somali, a Cushitic people. They share the same language, religion, and culture but are divided by a rigid structure of six clans. A small minority of Bantu-speaking people live in the southern part of the country. Other minority groups include Arabs, Indians, Italians, and Pakistanis. The majority of the people are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists. The remainder are either crop farmers, fishers, or inhabitants of the few urban centres. The population is 65 per cent rural, with urban dwellers less closely affiliated to the clans.

A.

Population Characteristics

Somalia has a population (2007 estimate) of 9,118,773, giving an average population density of 15 people per sq km (38 per sq mi). The principal cities are Mogadishu, a port as well as the capital, with a population (2003 estimate) of 1,174,881, and Hargeysa (1990, 43,627). Estimates are made by aid and relief agencies. The figures are complicated by large movements of nomads and, more recently, refugees from famine and civil war.

B.

Religion

Islam is the state religion in Somalia, and most of the people are Sunni Muslims.

C.

Language

Somali, a Cushitic language spoken by between 5.4 and 6.7 million people throughout the country, is the official language of Somalia. Eleven other African languages, mainly from the Afro-Asiatic family (Cushitic and Semitic), though some from the Niger-Congo family, are spoken. Cushitic languages include Maay (up to 1.5 million speakers), Garre (50,000 or more), Jiidu (20,000 to 60,000), and Tunni (20,000 to 60,000). There are also 40,000 first-language speakers of Swahili, mostly in found in the south. English and Standard Arabic are spoken by some as second languages.

D.

Education

Until civil war broke out in the early 1990s, education was free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14. In the 1980s adult literacy had reached 60 per cent; in 1995 it was 24.1 per cent. In 1985–1986 primary schools had about 196,496 pupils, general secondary schools had 44,000 students, and vocational and teacher-training institutions 10,400. As a result of the civil war, the educational system collapsed and most schools were closed, including the Somali National University (1954) in Mogadishu, which previously had an enrolment of about 4,600.

IV.

Economy

Somalia is one of the world’s poorest countries. Since the early 1990s its economy has been in a state of collapse because of civil war and its aftermath. Previously, the economy was based primarily on livestock raising, which accounted for 40 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP). Drought has added further problems to restoring livestock exports and has resulted in the death of herds. There are severe shortages of most commodities, except munitions. Crop farming is important only in the south.

Until the early 1990s, efforts to diversify and modernize the economy were directed by the government through a series of development plans, assisted by foreign grants and loans. In 1990 the gross national product (World Bank; 1988-1990 prices) was estimated at US$946 million, which is only US$150 per capita.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

The principal occupation in Somalia has traditionally been the raising of livestock. In 2005 the number of livestock animals was estimated at about 13.1 million sheep, 12.7 million goats, 7 million camels, and 5.35 million cattle. The principal crops in 2003 were sugar cane (200,000 tonnes), maize (164,000), and sorghum (121,000).

Somalia’s major forestry products were frankincense and myrrh, which were exported; the timber harvest in 1994 was about 7.8 million cu m (275 million cu ft). Fish are caught for local consumption, with a surplus for export. In 2004 the total catch was about 27,500 tonnes.

B.

Manufacturing

At the onset of civil war, manufacturing in Somalia was in the early stages of development. A cement factory, a cotton gin, a meat and fish cannery, and a textile plant had been established. Other industries included oilseed- and fruit-processing plants, leather and shoe factories, and petroleum and sugar refineries. Most of these facilities were shut down because of ongoing civil strife.

C.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Somalia is the Somali shilling, consisting of 100 cents (1,477.35 shillings equalled US$1; early 2007), issued by the Central Bank of Somalia (1960; Bankiga Dhexe ee Soomaaliya). Somalia is a member of the Islamic Development Bank and the African Development Bank.

D.

Commerce and Trade

In 2000 Somalia’s exports totalled about US$110 million, and imports about US$250 million. The chief exports were livestock and bananas. Other exports included meat, fish, leather and hides, and wood. The principal imports were foodstuffs, chemicals, machinery, textiles, and petroleum. Somalia’s major trading partners are Italy, Ethiopia, the United Kingdom, Germany, Kenya, the United States, Saudi Arabia, and China.

E.

Transport

Somalia has no railways. There are about 22,100 km (13,732 mi) of roads, but only 12 per cent are paved. In 1997 there were 0.1 passenger cars for every 1,000 people. Mogadishu is the main port. Until the early 1990s, a government-owned airline and several foreign airlines provided international services. There are five domestic airports and international airports at Mogadishu, Berbera, and Erigavo.

F.

Communications

Two government-owned radio stations broadcast in Arabic, English, Italian, Somali, and several other languages; television broadcasting has ceased since the demolition of the country’s only television station. The collapse of Somalia’s infrastructure because of the civil war has caused widespread disruption to the country’s telecommunications systems; relief organizations use their own systems.

V.

Government

A.

Executive and Legislature

The overthrow of President Muhammad Siad Barre in January 1991 left Somalia in a state of civil war, with no clear central governmental authority. Previously, under the 1979 constitution, as subsequently amended, executive power was held by a president, who was head of state and leader of the country’s sole legal political party, the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party. He was nominated by the party’s Central Committee, was elected to a seven-year term by direct universal vote, and served as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Legislative power was vested in the 177-member People’s Assembly. The president appointed 6 members, and the other 171 were popularly elected; all served five-year terms.

In 2000 an interim National Assembly of 245 members voted in a new president and prime minister; however, neither are recognized by the breakaway regions of Somaliland and Puntland, and the state is still effectively without official governmental rule. The main political parties are the United Somali Congress (USC) parties, the Somali National Movement, the Somali Democratic Movement, and the Somali Patriotic Movement. In 2004 a president was elected to run the country and in November a prime minister was named and a government appointed.

The highest civilian courts in Somalia were the supreme court, two courts of appeal, and eight regional courts. The 84 district courts had civil and criminal sections. Most regions have now reverted to Islamic law. For purposes of local administration Somalia is divided into 18 regions and 84 districts.

B.

Health and Welfare

Hospital and clinic services in Somalia are free, but resources were severely strained in the late 1980s by the presence of up to 600,000 refugees from the Ogadēn region of Ethiopia and in the early 1990s by Somalia’s civil war. The average life expectancy is about 47 years for men and 51 years for women; the infant mortality rate is 113 deaths per 1,000 live births, which is one of the world’s highest. In 1986 there were 13,300 people per doctor, but since the civil war the state health system has all but collapsed. Very basic care has since been provided by foreign aid workers.

C.

Defence

Until the early 1990s military service of 18 months was compulsory for men between the ages of 18 and 40. In the late 1980s the army had a force of some 61,300; the navy, 1,200; and the air force, 2,500. Since the overthrow of Muhammad Siad Barre in January 1991, there have been no national armed forces. Clan militias are engaged in fighting for political control.

D.

International Organizations

Somalia is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Arab League, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the African Union.

VI.

History

The history of the region now included in Somalia dates from antiquity, when the land was known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt. From the 2nd to the 7th century ad parts of the area belonged to the Ethiopian kingdom of Āksum. Arab tribes in the 7th century settled along the coast of the Gulf of Aden and established the sultanate of Adel, which centred on the port of Zeila. The Somali people began to migrate into this region from Yemen in the 13th century. The sultanate disintegrated during the 16th century into small independent states, many of which were ruled by Somali chiefs. Zeila became a dependency of Yemen, and was then captured by the Ottoman Empire.

A.

European Colonization

The first European power in the region was Britain, which took possession of Aden (now in the Republic of Yemen) on the Arabian coast in 1839, in order to protect British trade routes and provide safe anchorage for ships. In the mid-1870s Egypt, disregarding Turkish claims, occupied some of the towns on the Somali coast and part of the adjacent interior. When Egyptian troops left the area in 1882 to help stem the revolt of Muhammad Ahmad, known as the Mahdi, in the Sudan, Britain occupied the territory in order to safeguard the route to India through the Suez Canal, which had been opened in 1869. In 1887 a British protectorate, known as British Somaliland, was proclaimed. The protectorate, initially a dependency of Aden, was placed under the administration of the British Foreign Office in 1898 and of the Colonial Office in 1905.

Italian interest in the Somali coast developed in the late 19th century. Through treaties with local Somali sultans, and conventions with Britain, Ethiopia, and Zanzibar, Italy acquired a foothold along the Indian Ocean coast. British control of the interior of the protectorate was challenged by revolts between 1899 and 1910. In 1910 the British abandoned the interior and withdrew to the coastal regions, finally subduing the rebels only in 1920.

During this period Italy extended its control inland under the Treaty of London in 1915 and various agreements following World War I. In 1936 Italy merged its territories in Somaliland, Eritrea, and the newly conquered Ethiopia into the colonial state of Italian East Africa. After Italy entered World War II on the side of Germany in 1940, Italian troops invaded British Somaliland and succeeded in expelling the British, who reconquered the protectorate in 1941.

Under the Italian peace treaty adopted in 1947, Italy was forced to renounce its possessions in Africa. Responsibility for disposition of these colonies was allocated to the so-called Big Four (the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the USSR). In 1948 the Big Four, having failed to reach agreement, referred the matter to the General Assembly of the UN. A plan granting independence to Italian Somaliland, after ten years as a UN trust territory under Italian administration, was approved by the General Assembly in November 1949. On April 1, 1950, after Italy had accepted the terms of a UN trusteeship agreement, the British military government was replaced by a provisional Italian administration. The territory was named Somalia.

B.

Independence

On July 1, 1960, by agreement with the UN Trusteeship Council, Somalia was granted independence, merging with the former British protectorate of Somaliland, which had become independent on June 26. The country’s first president, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar, elected in 1960, was defeated in 1967 by the former prime minister Abdi Rashid Ali Shirmarke. On October 15, 1969, Shirmarke was assassinated, and days later a military group, led by Major-General Muhammad Siad Barre, seized power. In 1970 Barre declared Somalia a socialist state, and in the following years most of the country’s modern economy was nationalized. A drought in 1974 and 1975 caused widespread starvation.

C.

War with Ethiopia

In mid-1977 ethnic Somalis living in the Ogadēn region of Ethiopia, just across the border, began a war to gain self-determination. The rebels were armed by Somalia, which also contributed troops to the war effort. By late 1977 the Somalis had captured most of the Ogadēn. Ethiopia, aided by Cuba and the USSR after the United States, previously its closest ally, had refused help, reasserted control over the region in early 1978.

Somalia’s army suffered heavy losses. Ethiopia also provided support to Somalia’s dissident movements, based mainly in the north, who were able to launch attacks from across the border. Subsequent fighting in the Ogadēn precipitated a flood of refugees—estimated at close to 2 million in 1981—into Somalia. The United States gave both humanitarian and military aid and was in return granted use of the naval facilities at Berbera, previously a Soviet base. Hostilities with Ethiopia continued sporadically until 1988, when a peace accord was signed.

D.

Civil War and Famine

Following the peace accord, the dissident Somali National Movement continued its military campaign against the Barre government, capturing parts of the north. New opposition movements—each drawing support from a different clan—also emerged in the late 1980s. The civil war intensified, and Barre was forced to flee the capital in January 1991. During the next two years about 50,000 people were killed in factional fighting, and an estimated 300,000 died of starvation as it became impossible to distribute food within areas of the war-ravaged nation.

E.

UN Involvement and Withdrawal

In December 1992 a UN peacekeeping force led by US Marines was sent to restore order, while international agencies tried to resume food distribution and other humanitarian aid. However, violence continued to engulf the country, and the peacekeeping force became embroiled in open confrontation in which a number of UN soldiers, and hundreds of Somalis, died. By the end of 1995, as a result of international criticism of its operations, the UN force had been completely withdrawn from the country.

The main figure who had ousted Barre, General Muhammad Farah Aydid, died in August 1996, having been wounded in fighting near Mogadishu. He had set out to unite Somalia through his Somali National Alliance, while his main opponent, Ali Mahdi Muhammad, who formed the Somali Salvation Alliance, competed with him for the presidency. Each man claimed to head separate governments in the war-torn country. Aydid had succeeded in capturing parts of the south and the towns of Xuddur, Dünsoor, and Doolow. Rivalries within his alliance led to further conflict, largely connected with control of the banana trade.

F.

Breakaway Republics

Aydid was succeeded by his son, Hussein, who continued to lead armed groups against the opposing alliance, mainly in and around the capital. President Muhammad Ibrahim Egal of the breakaway northern region of Somaliland, awaiting UN recognition, planned to set up a constitution and possible elections. In February 1997 Egal was re-elected.

In January 1997 a meeting was held in Addis Ababa to set up a government of national unity, but Hussein Aydid accused Ethiopia of outside interference. In March a provisional peace agreement was established between most of the factions involved.

A series of natural disasters wreaked havoc in Somalia in 1997: renewed drought in March led to famine, and widespread floods in November killed over 1,400 people, rendered 230,000 homeless, and destroyed sorghum crop fields. Also in November, many European aid workers were withdrawn following a number of abductions by armed gangs.

On December 22, 1997 the Cairo Declaration was signed by all factions, including Somaliland, and plans were drawn up for a transitional government. Elections were intended for no later than 2003. In January 1998 the peace agreement was celebrated by thousands of people in Mogadishu. However, the celebrations proved to be premature—a conference of the country's clans was postponed in February, and fighting continued after the peace agreement was reported dead in March. Brief hopes for peace in July were dashed when splits appeared between the main faction leaders over a separate region in the north-east, and the autonomous region of Puntland was declared in August. A legislature in the secessionist region was inaugurated in September.

In a referendum held in Somaliland in May 2001 over 90 per cent of voters supported the proposal for a change in the constitution to allow the region to seek independence from Somalia. In July in Puntland, Yusuf Haji Nur declared himself interim president of the autonomous region.

G.

Ethiopian Intervention

Civil war persisted throughout 1999 and into 2000, deep clan differences making the situation difficult to resolve despite several peace initiatives. In June 1999 Ethiopia began a military intervention in Somalia. A national reconciliation plan was devised in October by the president of Djibouti, Ismael Omar Guelleh, and endorsed by the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD), an organization of north-African countries, in February 2000. A conference on Peace and Reconciliation, with the mediation of Djibouti officials, took place in April. These efforts finally culminated in the election in Djibouti, on August 27, of Somalia's first president in almost ten years. Abdiqassim Salad Hassan, a 58-year-old former interior minister, is the son of a traditional leader as well as a member of one of the most powerful clans, which brought hopes for greater stability under his administration. In October his newly appointed prime minister, Ali Khalif Galayr, announced the new government.

Many factions, however, as well as the two breakaway regions—Somaliland and Puntland—refused to accept the new interim government. At the start of 2001, rebels seized Garbaharey, a southern town, reportedly with Ethiopian assistance. Ethiopia denied trying to destabilize Somalia, despite persistent accusations of its involvement by the Somali government.

In June 2001, Ethiopia offered to mediate between the transitional government and the warring factions, notably the Somali Reconciliation and Reconstruction Council, a grouping of leading warlords. Prime Minister Ali Khalif Galayr lost a vote of no-confidence in October 2001 and was replaced the following month by Hasan Abshir Farah. In Puntland, Jama Ali Jama was elected as the region’s president and Ahmad Mohammed Goonie as his vice-president. Following the terrorist attacks on the US in September 2001 and the subsequent war against terrorism in Afghanistan, attention turned to Somalia, where it was believed that some of the Al-Qaeda terrorist organization’s units were based. The US closed down a number of organizations in the country, including Al-Barakaat, Somalia’s Internet provider.

A South-Western Regional Government was declared in April 2002 by the Rahanwein Resistance Army. It represents six south-western districts and is ruled by a president: Hassan Muhammad Nur “Shatigadud”. Meanwhile, in May, in the breakaway Republic of Somaliland, Dahir Riyale Kahin took power after the death of Muhammad Ibrahim Egal, who had been president there since 1993. Kahin narrowly won the presidential election held in Somaliland in April 2003.

In early 2004 the various warring factions in Somalia agreed to set up a national parliament and to hold presidential elections. In October the Transitional Assembly, sitting in Nairobi, Kenya, elected Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as president. He is the president of the breakaway region of Puntland. In November he nominated Ali Muhammad Ghedi as prime minister. The agreement also outlined a parliament of 275 members, with each of the country's major clans represented.

Somalia was the worst hit African country in the tsunami disaster that struck the Indian Ocean region in December 2004. Estimates of the number of deaths in the Puntland region reached more than 300, with a further 50,000 people being displaced.

H.

Islamic Threat

The interim government first sat in Baidoa in February 2006, Mogadishu still being considered too dangerous and the site of continued violence between warring militias. Meanwhile a new threat was developing in the south of the country where a rival, Islamic-led administration—the Union of Islamic Courts—was overthrowing the local warlords. In June 2006 the Union had advanced and took control of the capital. They were driven back by combined government and Ethiopian forces in December, the fight being joined by US forces in early January and African Union forces later in the year. The fighting led to hundreds of deaths and around 1 million displaced persons, and as the hostilities escalated Prime Minister Ghedi resigned. He was replaced by Nur Hassan Hussein in November 2007.