I.

Introduction

Sweden, officially Konungariket Sverige (Kingdom of Sweden), constitutional monarchy in northern Europe, occupying the eastern portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is bordered on the north and west by Norway, on the north-east by Finland, on the east by the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, and on the south-west by further bodies of water: the Öresund (Øresund), the Kattegat, and the Skagerrak. Sweden includes the islands of Gotland and Öland in the Baltic Sea. The total area of Sweden is 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). It is the fourth-largest country in Europe. Stockholm is the country’s capital and largest city.

II.

Land and Resources

The extreme distance from north to south in Sweden is about 1,575 km (980 mi), and from east to west about 500 km (310 mi). The coastline totals about 7,565 km (4,700 mi) in length. Sweden may be divided into six topographical regions. In the north-western section are extensions of the Kjölen Mountains, which form part of the boundary with Norway. The highest point in the range, and the highest point in Sweden, is atop Mount Kebnekaise 2,111 m (6,926 ft). To the east of the mountains is a long plateau, which slopes east to a coastal plain bordering the Gulf of Bothnia. An upland region, known as the Småland highlands, is located south of the lowland. The plains of Skåne occupy the south-eastern tip of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The lowest elevation point is sea level along the coast.

Sweden is part of the Fennoscandian Shield, which extends over part of northern Europe. The rocks, except those in the north-west, are primarily ancient Precambrian granites, schists, and gneisses. Younger metamorphic rocks are characteristic of the northern part of the country. Sedimentary rocks are found in the southern Skåne plains and in the islands of Gotland and Öland.

The present topography of Sweden was formed largely during the Quaternary Ice Ages by a continental ice sheet, which receded about 8,000 years ago. The mountains, except for several of the highest peaks, were rounded by glaciation. The ice sheet scraped out deep valleys and created numerous glacial lakes. Ridges of rock, gravel, sand, and clay were deposited in many places by the retreating ice. Glacial seas left fertile marine clay soils in the south and in the central lake area. Some permanent glacier fields still remain in the high mountain regions.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The mountains of northern Sweden are the source of many rivers, which flow south-east to the Gulf of Bothnia. These rivers, which often have elongated lakes and a number of falls and rapids, constitute a valuable source of hydroelectric power. The principal rivers are the Ångermanälven, Dalälven, Klarälven, Lake Ume (Ume älv), and Lake Torne (Torne älv). In south-central Sweden is a lowland area with many lakes, including the largest lakes in the country, Lake Vänern and Lake Vättern.

B.

Climate

The climate is comparatively temperate, considering that Sweden is located at such a northern latitude. The principal moderating influences are the Gulf Stream and the prevailing westerly winds, which blow in from the relatively warm North Atlantic Ocean. In winter these influences are offset by cold air masses that sweep in from the east. The climate of northern Sweden is considerably more severe than that of the south primarily because it has higher altitudes and because the mountains cut off the moderating marine influences. Snow lasts for four to seven months.

The average temperature in February, the coldest month, is below 0° C (32° F) throughout Sweden, with temperatures ranging from -3° C (27° F) in Stockholm to -1° C (30° F) in Göteborg and -11.7° C (11° F) in Haparanda in the northern part of the country. In July, the warmest month, the average temperatures are 17° C (63° F) in Göteborg, 18° C (64° F) in Stockholm, and 15° C (59° F) in Haparanda.

The proportion of daylight hours increases in the summer and decreases in the winter. In the part of Sweden above the Arctic Circle, daylight is continuous for some two months in the summer and continuous darkness occurs for some two months in the winter.

The average annual precipitation in Sweden is about 535 mm (21 in). In Stockholm, average precipitation is 550 mm (22 in) and in Göteborg, 670 mm (26 in). Precipitation is heaviest in the south-west and in the mountains along the Norwegian border. Rain falls mainly in the late summer; heavy snows are common in central and northern Sweden.

C.

Natural Resources

The major natural resources of Sweden are fertile farmland, forests that cover more than 60 per cent of the country, large deposits of iron ore and other minerals, and abundant sources of water for the production of hydroelectricity.

D.

Plants and Animals

Alpine and arctic vegetation prevail in northern Sweden. The highest mountain areas are barren of vegetation; the next highest regions are moorlands with various kinds of mosses and lichens. Below the moorlands is a zone of birch and willow trees, often dwarfed and stunted. The next lower, and largest, zone is covered with coniferous forests, primarily of spruce and Scots pine. In the south, deciduous trees, including oak and beech, are found.

Reindeer are common in northern Sweden. The bear, lynx, marten, red deer, and wolf are the principal wild animals in the forested areas. The lemming, a small rodent, is abundant in the upland moorlands. The birdlife is varied and plentiful.

E.

Soils

About 9 per cent of Sweden’s soils are arable, mostly in the south. Fertile marine clay soils lie along the southern coast, and underlying sedimentary limestone and shale, which help fertilize the soil, are found in the plains of Skåne. In the rest of the country, poorly developed podzolic soils, as well as large areas of exposed rock, predominate.

F.

Environmental Concerns

One of Sweden's major environmental problems is acid rain, which degrades soil, damages buildings, acidifies waterways, and defoliates forests. The country has made great strides in reducing sources of acid rain within its own borders—Sweden has an ambitious environmental protection programme and was among the first countries to introduce a carbon tax. Sweden emits 6.1 (1996) metric tons of carbon dioxide per capita, compared with 15.3 metric tons in Norway and 11.5 metric tons in Finland. Sweden also has a sulphur tax and has cut its sulphur dioxide emissions by more than two-thirds since the early 1970s. Most of the air pollution that results in acid rain in Sweden, however, originates from emissions abroad. Acid levels in the country's soil continue to rise as a result of pollution from other countries. Nitrogen run-off from farms in Sweden has caused severe pollution and eutrophication, or build-up of nutrients, in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, as well as in many of the country's lakes. As a result of eutrophication, algae growth has increased and animal life has declined. In 1988 a viral outbreak attributed to pollution killed nearly 65 per cent of the local seal population.

A large percentage of Sweden's energy is generated by 12 nuclear reactors, although this energy source is beginning to be phased out. Hydroelectric power is the country's other primary energy source. Although hydroelectric power is a relatively clean source of energy, the dams built to harness it alter the local ecology. Sweden is party to international treaties concerning air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear testing, ship pollution, tropical timber, and wetlands. A single internationally recognized biosphere reserve at Lake Torne (Torne älv) has been established within Sweden as part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Additionally, over 50 wetland areas are protected under the Ramsar Convention.

III.

Population

Sweden’s population is principally composed of Scandinavians of Germanic descent. About 17,000 Saami live mainly in Swedish Saamiland, in the northern part of the country. The immigrant population, which includes Finns, Yugoslavs, Iranians, Norwegians, Danes, Turks, Somalis, Americans, Chileans, and others, increased in the 1990s; in 1995 there were 438,710 foreign nationals in Sweden. Many moved to Sweden as guest workers, others as refugees. Their numbers have been swollen by refugees escaping the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Sweden ranks second only to Germany as a destination for refugees from that region.

A.

Population Characteristics

Sweden has a population of 9,059,651 (2009 estimate), giving the country an average population density of about 22 people per sq km (57 per sq mi). Life expectancy is 79 years for men and 83.3 years for women, among the highest in the world. The great majority of the population lives in the southern half of Sweden, especially in the central lowlands, the plains of Skåne, and the coastal lowlands. Large areas of the northern mountains are sparsely inhabited. About 83 per cent of the population is classified as urban.

B.

Political Divisions

Sweden is divided into 21 counties: Blekinge, Dalarna, Gävleborg, Gotland, Halland, Jämtland, Jönköping, Kalmar, Kronoberg, Norrbotten, Örebro, Östergötland, Skåne, Södermanland, Stockholm, Uppsala, Värmland, Västerbotten, Västernorrland, Västmanland, and Västra Götaland.

C.

Principal Cities

The principal cities of Sweden include Stockholm, the capital and largest city, with a population of 761,721 (2004 estimate); Göteborg, population 478,055 (2004 estimate), an industrial centre and seaport; and Malmö, population 267,171 (2004 estimate), a commercial centre and seaport. Other major cities (with their populations) include Uppsala, 180,669 (2004 estimate), Linköping, 136,231 (2004 estimate), Örebro, 126,288 (2004 estimate), Norrköping, 123,971 (2004 estimate), and Västerås, 129,987 (2004 estimate).

D.

Religion

Lutheranism is the religion of more than 85 per cent of the Swedish people. The Evangelical Lutheran Church was the state Church of Sweden from the 16th century until the end of the 20th century. The separation of Church and State was completed on January 1, 2000. From January 1, 1996, children no longer acquired membership in the Church at birth. Sweden is divided into 13 Lutheran dioceses, each one headed by a bishop. Other Protestant denominations present in Sweden are the Baptists, the Methodists, the Mission Covenant Church of Sweden, and the Pentecostal Movement. A small number of people are adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, Islam, and Judaism.

E.

Language

Swedish is the official language, spoken by much of the population. Skåne, a Germanic language, is a mother tongue for around 1.5 million in Sweden, although the language has had no formal recognition since Scania was gained from Denmark by Sweden. Finnish, Tornedalen Finnish, Jamska, Tavringer Romani, Saami languages, and other languages are mother tongues for other minority groups.

F.

Education

Organized higher education in Sweden dates from the late 15th century, when the first, and perhaps most influential, Swedish university was founded in 1477 in Uppsala. Other Swedish universities that have received international recognition are Lund (founded 1666), Stockholm (1877), and Göteborg (1891). Additional important institutions of higher learning include the Royal Institute of Technology (1827), the Stockholm School of Economics (1909), and the Karolinska Institute (1810); all are located in Stockholm. A more unified system of higher education was established by a law enacted in 1977.

The Swedish system of gymnastic instruction, as developed by the Swedish teacher Pehr Henrik Ling at the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute (1813), now the College of Physical Education in Stockholm, influenced international education. This system changed gymnastics instruction, especially in Germany, but also in other countries. Another Swedish contribution to international education was the development of methods for teaching sloyd, a system of manual training based on training in woodworking.

In 1842 education in Sweden was made free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 14 years. The school system consisted of infant schools (7 to 9 years old) and elementary schools (9 to 14 years old). Children who did not attend public schools were required to provide evidence of private education. The Education Act of 1950 basically changed Swedish education by abandoning the traditional two-track (university preparation and vocational education) school system of Europe and instituting the comprehensive, unitary system. The goal of this law was to “bridge the old gaps between social classes” and to enable each individual to develop to their full potential. The success of this educational reform inspired similar reforms in other countries.

Legislation in 1950 and 1962 extended the period of compulsory education to ten years and provided for the introduction of ten-year comprehensive schools divided into lower, intermediate, and upper levels. This new system has been established throughout Sweden.

About 618,700 students attend lower (primary) schools in Sweden; some 297,700 are enrolled in intermediate schools; and 309,952 attend upper schools (1994-1995). Many types of vocational schools provide training for trades. Adult education is extensive. Including the outstanding universities in all its major cities, Sweden has more than 70 institutions of higher education, which together are attended annually by more than 231,300 students. Expenditure on education accounts for some 7.1 per cent of gross national product (GNP).

G.

Culture

Sweden has developed a modern industrial culture based on natural resources, technical skills, and a sense of quality. The people have tended to maintain provincial traditions and customs because of the isolated location of the country. Swedish society was traditionally characterized by simplicity and even severity resulting from geographic and economic conditions. Swedish traders returned from time abroad, however, with ideas and products that were assimilated into Swedish culture. In the 18th century French influence was especially important in modifying Swedish culture.

Since the 19th century Sweden has made major contributions to international art, design, literature, music, and cinema (see Art and Music below). Modern Swedish ceramics, furniture, glass, silver, stainless steel, and textiles have received international recognition for their beauty, simplicity of form, and functional design. Orrefors is a centre noted for its glassware.

However, possibly the country’s best-known contribution to world arts and sciences in the 20th century was made posthumously, by the Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist, Alfred Nobel. Four of the five prizes that bear his name, and are financed by a fund established under his will, are awarded by Swedish institutions. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prizes for physics and chemistry, the Karolinska Institute the prize for physiology or medicine, and the Swedish Academy the prize for literature; the fifth Nobel Prize, for peace, is awarded by Norway. In 1968 a sixth prize, for economic science, was founded by the Bank of Sweden; it is also awarded by the Academy of Sciences.

G.1.

Libraries and Museums

Sweden has many libraries, including public and county libraries and research libraries connected with universities, institutes, and state museums. Among the largest are those of the universities of Uppsala, Göteborg, Lund, and Stockholm; the Royal Library and the library of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, both in Stockholm; and the city libraries of Göteborg and Stockholm.

Most of Sweden’s large cities have museums. The best-known museum is the National Museum in Stockholm; it contains the country’s principal art collection. Other notable museums are the Skansen, a park with displays of rural life; the Contemporary Art Museum; the Swedish Museum of Natural History; and the Vasamuseet, which houses the warship Vasa that sank in 1628 and was raised in 1961. Also of interest are the Göteborg Art Gallery and the Cultural History Museum in Lund.

G.2.

Art

Swedish art originated in the Bronze Age (1500-500 bc). Ornaments dating from this period reveal an independent artistic style. Sculpture in stone began on the island of Gotland about ad 500. The arts, especially sculpture, flourished in connection with the construction of churches from about 1100-1350. Since the Middle Ages, Swedish art has often been profoundly influenced by European developments. Prominent Swedish artists of the 18th century are the painters Carl Gustav Pilo and Alexander Roslin, and the sculptor Johan Tobias von Sergel. Significant artists of the 19th century include Carl Fredrik Hill and Ernst Josephson. Internationally recognized artists of the 20th century are the painter Anders Leonhard Zorn and the sculptor Carl Milles.

Although Sweden developed the medieval log cabin, which was introduced in the United States in the 17th century, major architectural advances were not made until the late 19th century. Since then, internationally noted architects have included Ragnar Östberg, Erik Gunnar Asplund, and Sven Gottfrid Markelius.

In the field of cinema, Swedish directors have won international recognition. Prominent directors include Ingmar Bergman, Arne Edvard Sucksdorff, and Arne Mattsson.

G.3.

Music

The greatest Swedish contribution to music has been in the field of song. Famous Swedish singers have included Jenny Lind, Christina Nilsson, Jussi Björling, and Birgit Nilsson. Swedish folk music reflects the natural surroundings and the remoteness of the country through the ages. In the 18th century, a period of great cultural activity, King Gustav III founded the Academy of Music, the Stockholm Opera, and the Royal Ballet. A Swedish composer who achieved international fame was the symphonist Franz Berwald. Modern composers include Hugo Alfvén, whose music is based on Swedish folk songs, Hilding Rosenberg, and Karl-Birger Blomdahl. In the field of popular music the group Abba achieved worldwide success, paving the way for other Scandinavian performers.

G.4.

Swedish Literature

See Swedish Literature.

G.5.

Heritage

The country has 12 listed World Heritage Sites. They include the Royal Domain of Drottningholm (inscribed in 1991), an 18th-century royal residence inspired by the Palace of Versailles; the archaeological sites at Birka and Hovgården (1993); Engelsberg Ironworks (1993); the rock carvings at Tanum (1994); and the cemetery at Skogskyrkogården (1994). Architectural sites include the Hanseatic town of Visby (1995) and the Church Village of Gammelstad, Luleå (1996). The Laponian Area (inscribed in 1996) represents the ancestral home of the Saami and is located in northern Sweden; the High Coast (2000) is a fine example of glaciated topography; the Agricultural Landscape of Southern Öland (2000) is dominated by a limestone plateau; and the Mining Area of the Great Copper Mountain in Falun (2001) reveals vestiges of the 17th-century copper-mining industry. The Naval Port of Karlskrona (1998) is a planned naval town from the 17th century.

IV.

Economy

Sweden’s GNP in 2004 was about US$322,255 million, yielding a per head income of about US$47,870. Its urban, industrialized economy is based primarily on extensive forests, rich iron-ore deposits, and abundant hydroelectric power resources. Although more than 90 per cent of Swedish industry is privately owned, the government exercises substantial control over the economy to moderate economic fluctuations.

The annual national budget in 2006 included revenue of about US$145,537 million and expenditure of about US$136,026 million. Although Sweden enjoys one of the world’s highest standards of living, the country experienced a serious recession during the early 1990s. The government responded with austerity measures and a reassessment of its traditional commitment to full employment and the welfare state. Steps taken included a 10 per cent reduction in civil service employment, cuts in social welfare programmes, and partial privatization of the state sector, including the telecommunications and electricity networks. In early 1991 the tax system was reformed, with income tax reductions for all but the most highly paid, and an increase in goods and services taxes. The draft budget for 2001 continued the policy of income tax cuts, but the healthy state of the economy meant it was still possible to increase social expenditure, particular child benefit payments.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Sweden is nearly self-sufficient in agricultural products although only about 8 per cent of the land is cultivated. Intensive fertilization and mechanization makes good crop yields possible despite poor soils in many areas, rugged topography, and a short growing season. Agriculture is particularly intensively developed in the southern lowlands, especially in the fertile plains of Skåne.

Swedish farms vary in size from large estates to small family holdings. In recent years, many small farms have been combined into larger units. Most agricultural production is for domestic consumption. About 3 per cent of the working population is engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. After World War II, dairying, traditionally important in Swedish agriculture, declined somewhat in relation to the production of grains and vegetables. The leading farm commodities remain livestock and livestock products, especially dairy items.

The major crops (2007 figures, in tonnes) are wheat (2,254,700), barley (1,439,000), sugar beet (2,000,000), and potatoes (790,100). The livestock population (1995 figures) includes approximately 1.56 million cattle, 1.69 million pigs, 505,466 sheep, and 6.70 million poultry.

Sweden has the largest timber reserves in western Europe, and is one of the largest producers of timber products in the world. Forest products account for substantial portions of Sweden’s yearly industrial output and exports. Annual production of timber (1995) includes about 31.1 million cu m (1,105 million cu ft) of logs for sawn timber and about 24.1 million cu m (851 million cu ft) of logs for making paper. The most productive forest areas are the lower slopes of the northern highlands and the Småland region. Timber-processing plants are concentrated along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia; some of the many rivers that flow into the gulf are used to transport the logs to the mills and to supply the mills with power.

Sweden’s annual fish catch totalled 276,800 tonnes in 2007. Herring make up more than 35 per cent of the catch; other fish landed include cod and sprat. Göteborg is an important fishing port.

B.

Mining

Mineral production is important to the Swedish economy. Extensive high-grade iron-ore deposits are located in central and northern Sweden, notably around Kiruna and Malmberget. Annual mineral production includes, in tonnes, about 16.5 million of iron ore, 76,800 of lead, and 85,500 of copper ore (2004 figures). Zinc, silver, gold, crude petroleum, uranium, and iron pyrites are also produced; Sweden has an estimated 15 per cent of the world’s known uranium reserves.

C.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing has become increasingly important in Sweden since the 1880s. The value of manufacturing has increased by more than 2 per cent annually since the mid-1960s, and today Sweden is one of Europe’s most industrialized countries. Swedish industry enjoys the advantages of high-quality domestic raw materials and a highly skilled workforce.

In 1995 about 18 per cent of the workforce (totalling 4.3 million), was employed in manufacturing, which contributes just over one fifth of the gross domestic product. Most manufacturing plants are privately owned, and the majority are small. Some 90 per cent of industrial production is by privately owned companies. Sweden is noted for producing high-quality steel; the annual output of crude steel was 4.9 million tonnes in 1994. Additional major manufactures are aluminium, lead, copper, motor vehicles, machinery, electric and electronic equipment, timber, paper, cement, furniture, glass and glassware, chemicals, refined petroleum, textiles and clothing, ornaments, aircraft, ships, and food processing. Leading manufacturing centres include Stockholm, Göteborg, Linköping, Malmö, and Trollhättan.

D.

Energy

Sweden’s rich water resources are almost fully exploited for energy; in 2006, 44 per cent of electricity was produced in hydroelectric facilities; a further 46 per cent was generated in nuclear power plants. Total electricity production is about 138.6 billion kWh (2006). Because of stringent environmental legislation, the lack of further hydroelectric resources, and the government’s policy to phase out nuclear power by 2010, Sweden is developing alternative energy sources.

E.

Currency and Banking

The basic monetary unit of Sweden is the krona, or crown, of 100 öre (8.02 kronor equalled US$1; early 2009). The central bank and bank of issue is the Sveriges Riksbank, or Bank of Sweden (founded 1668). It determines monetary policy in cooperation with government officials. Sweden also has 21 commercial banks with many branches, in addition to about 90 savings banks and a few other types of banking and loan organizations. The stock exchange is in Stockholm. In 2000, participation in European economic and monetary union was adopted as official policy.

F.

Commerce and Trade

Foreign trade is very important, and Sweden was a member of the European Free Trade Association until 1995 when it joined the EU. The major trading partners of Sweden include Germany, the United Kingdom, Norway, Denmark, the United States, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg.

In 2007 annual exports earned about US$168,051 million and imports cost about US$150,353 million. However, both the current account of the balance of payments and overall balance of payments have been in deficit since the early 1990s. Sweden’s principal exports include forest products, machinery, motor vehicles, iron and steel, chemicals, and ships. Major imports include machinery, petroleum, transport equipment, chemicals, clothing and textiles, food, and iron and steel.

G.

Labour

In 1995 the employed Swedish labour force totalled about 3.9 million people. Of this total, about 19 per cent were engaged in manufacturing, and 25 per cent in providing community, social, and personal services. About 11 per cent were employed in the business and finance sector. Only just over 3 per cent worked in farming, forestry, and fishing combined. In 1992, 84 per cent of all Swedish workers were unionized, according to the International Labour Organization—the largest percentage of unionized workers of any industrial nation. Working conditions and labour-management relations are generally excellent and strikes are normally rare.

H.

Transport

Sweden’s transport facilities are concentrated in the southern third of the country. Sweden has about 138,000 km (85,749 mi) of roads, of which 31 per cent are paved. More than 4 million motor vehicles, including some 3.6 million passenger cars, were in use in 1996, with a ratio of 2.5 people per car. In July 2000 King Carl and Queen Margaret II of Denmark opened a new bridge and tunnel link between Sweden and Denmark. The 16 km (10 mi) bridge across the Øresund strait connects the port of Malmö to the Danish capital Copenhagen, linking Sweden to mainland Europe for the first time since the Ice Age. It consists of a four-lane motorway and two rail tracks.

There are about 9,821 km (6,102 mi) of railways, virtually all of which are state owned; approximately 60 per cent, including the principal railway lines, is electrified. Inland waterways include the Göta Canal, which connects the eastern and western coasts of Sweden. Although the canal is important chiefly as a tourist route, it serves some local commerce. The Swedish merchant marine, which includes tankers, has a total displacement of about 2.9 million gross tonnes. Stockholm and Göteborg are the leading seaports.

The Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), operated jointly with Denmark and Norway, provides international services. Linjeflyg offers domestic flights within Sweden. The principal international airports are at Arlanda (near Stockholm), Landvetter (near Göteborg), and Sturup (near Malmö).

I.

Communications

In 2004 Sweden’s 93 daily newspapers had a combined circulation of about 4 million. Influential dailies include Expressen, Aftonbladet, Dagens Nyheter, and Svenska Dagbladet, all published in Stockholm, and Göteborgs-Posten. Sweden has a technologically advanced telecommunications system. The Swedish Telecommunications Administration provides telephone and telegraph services and operates the radio and television networks. In 1997 around 8 million radios, and 5 million televisions were in use. There are approximately 717 telephones and 935 mobile telephones per 1000 people. In 1993 the state broadcasting corporation was replaced by three independent companies. In 1994 some 65 per cent of households could receive satellite television; nine television channels are transmitted by satellite and cable.

V.

Government

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy; the present monarch is King Carl XVI Gustaf (succeeded 1973). The country is governed under the constitution of 1975, which superseded the Constitutional Act of 1809 and the Parliament Act of 1866, as amended. The 1975 constitution eliminated the last vestiges of monarchical power in governing the country. The monarch retains the title of Head of State, an exclusively ceremonial post, but is no longer the supreme commander of the armed forces. Under the 1975 constitution the monarch also ceased to preside over Cabinet meetings. All power is defined as emanating from the people. The constitution includes a lengthy bill of rights. Succession to the throne was opened to females in 1980; the present heir is Crown Princess Victoria (born 1977).

A.

Executive and Legislature

In Sweden executive power is vested in the Cabinet, which is responsible to the national legislature, the Riksdag. The Cabinet is composed of a prime minister, department ministers, and ministers without portfolio. In addition to the Cabinet ministries, a number of agencies oversee government-operated services, such as the telephone system and the national railways. These agencies, headed by government-appointed directors, are nominally subordinate to the Cabinet ministries but actually function independently of them.

In 1971 the Riksdag, formerly a bicameral body, was changed to a unicameral legislature with 350 popularly elected members; the 1975 constitution reduced the number of members to 349, effective at the next election, to prevent tie votes. Members of the Riksdag are elected to terms of up to four years by universal suffrage of people age 18 or older under a system of proportional representation.

B.

Judiciary

The Swedish judiciary is entirely independent of the other branches of government and comprises a three-tier system of courts: a Supreme Court, six courts of appeal, and district and city courts. The Supreme Court is the court of final appeal in all cases and may also consider new evidence. The appeals courts, in addition to having appellate jurisdiction, are responsible for the administration of the court system in their areas and for the further training of judges. District and city courts are courts of first instance. They are presided over by judges who are assisted by a popularly elected panel, usually consisting of from three to five laypeople. Juries are used only in press libel suits.

A special feature of the Swedish judicial system, copied in recent years by other countries, is the ombudsman, whose duty is to monitor how the courts and administrators observe and apply the laws. An ombudsman may investigate complaints by any citizen, initiate investigations, and bring evidence of error or wrongdoing before a court. An ombudsman is appointed by the Riksdag for a term of four years; in the early 2000s Sweden had seven such officials.

C.

Local Government

Each of the 24 counties (län) in Sweden is governed by an administrative board appointed by the central government, in conjunction with a popularly elected county council. Towns, cities, and rural districts within the counties constitute communes and also have popularly elected councils.

D.

Political Parties

Swedish politics has traditionally been dominated by the Social Democratic Labour Party (Arbetarepartiet-Socialdemokraterna), which has governed almost continuously since the 1930s; it was out of power only in 1976-1982, 1991-1994, and 2006- . Operating against the Social Democrats, and often working in coalition groupings are a host of moderate centre and right-wing parties, the largest of which is the Moderate Party (Moderata Samlingspartiet), Liberal Party (Folkpartiet Liberalerna), and Centre Party (Centerpartiet). Other influential groups include the Christian Democratic (Kristdemokraterna), Green (Miljöpartiet de Gröna), and Left (Vänsterpartiet) parties.

E.

Health and Welfare

Historically, Sweden has had possibly the world’s most comprehensive social welfare system. All citizens receive old-age pensions, health insurance, and workers’ compensation disability benefits. An unemployment insurance plan is subsidized largely by the government but administered by the trade unions. Other social welfare provisions include subsidies to families who are raising children, financial aid to newly married couples, maternity benefits, free holidays for mothers and children of low-income families, and government-subsidized housing; and a new pension scheme. However, this provision has necessitated very high tax levels and, in response to the recession of the early 1990s, the government instituted reductions in the level and range of social-welfare programmes. The infant mortality rate in 2009 was 3 deaths per 1,000 live births and in 2004 there was a ratio of one doctor to every 328 people. Budget allocation in 1997 for health and social welfare was 28.8 per cent of total expenditure.

F.

Defence

The armed forces of Sweden are headed by a supreme commander and a defence staff that coordinates the activities of the army, navy, and air force. Up to 15 months’ military service is compulsory for men between 18 and 47 years of age. An important component of the country’s defences is the 125,000-member home guard, a volunteer service organized during World War II; it can be mobilized in two hours. In 2006 the armed forces included an army of 13,800, a navy of 7,900, and an air force of 5,900.

Strongly defensive of its traditional neutrality during the Cold War, since 1989 Sweden has also shown willingness to cooperate with other European nations on security matters. In 1999 a 50 per cent cut in the armed forces was announced. This reflected both the reduced threat posed from Eastern Bloc countries after the end of the Cold War and more general government spending cuts. At the end of 2000 Prime Minister Göran Persson proposed an end to the neutrality policy, claiming that in the post-Cold War era it was no longer a relevant concept. He said that there would be no move to join NATO, and that Sweden would remain non-aligned.

G.

International Organizations

Sweden is a member of the following organizations: the European Union; the United Nations (UN); the Nordic Council (NC); the Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS); the Arctic Council (AC); the Partnership for Peace (PFP); the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE); the Council of Europe (CE); the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

VI.

History

During Roman times the eastern half of the Scandinavian Peninsula was inhabited by two of the Germanic Peoples: the Suiones, or Swedes, in northern Svealand; and the Gothones, or Goths, in southern Gothia. These peoples, although united in religious beliefs, were generally at war with each other. Before the 10th century, details of Swedish history are obscure. In the first half of the 9th century Frankish missionaries began teaching Christianity, which slowly became established in the country. Olaf Skötkonung was the first Swedish king to become a Christian.

From about ad 800, Swedish Vikings established colonies in other countries, especially Russia and Eastern Europe, and established trade routes. During the reign of Eric IX, from 1150 to 1160, Swedish power was strengthened. Eric invaded Finland and forced Christianity on those he conquered; during the subsequent two centuries Finland was completely subjugated by the Swedes. Eric was allegedly slain by a Danish claimant of his throne while he was attending mass, and he later became the patron saint of Sweden.

A.

The Union of Kalmar

In the 13th and 14th centuries feudalism became a controlling influence in Sweden, and a wealthy aristocracy replaced the waning power of the throne. In 1389 the Swedish nobles forced Albert of Mecklenburg to renounce the throne, which was given to Margaret I, Queen of Denmark and Norway. In 1397 Margaret effected the Union of Kalmar, by which the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were united under a single sovereign.

The union, which endured for more than a century, was characterized by constant dissension and wars between the Danes and Swedes. In 1520, King Christian II of Denmark and Norway successfully invaded Sweden to enforce his authority. Following his coronation, he had hundreds of his opponents executed. The mass executions aroused a rebellion in 1521, which deposed Christian. Denmark, however, retained possession of the southern part of the peninsula. The leader of the rebellion, Gustav Vasa, became administrator before being crowned king as Gustav I Vasa in 1523. Under Gustav, Sweden became a hereditary monarchy in which the power of the nobles was circumscribed and that of the clergy subordinated to the State. Lutheranism was established as the state religion in the 1520s.

B.

Sweden as Military Power

During the 16th century Sweden entered a period of expansion. The Reval district of Estonia placed itself voluntarily under Swedish protection in 1561 and, as a result of the Livonia War of 1557 to 1582, Sweden acquired all of Estonia from Poland, including the district of Narva. Gradually the kingdom became a power in the Baltic area, and its expansionist policies were furthered by Gustav II Adolph, considered the greatest Swedish king, who succeeded to the throne in 1611.

At the beginning of his reign, Sweden was at war with Russia, but in 1617 Gustav ended the conflict with a treaty by which Sweden obtained eastern Karelia and Ingria. A war with Poland (1621-1629) gave Sweden all Livonia, which was, however, not formally renounced by Poland until 1660. In 1630 Gustav, as the champion of Protestantism, entered the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). The king died in 1632, but his policies were continued and brilliantly fulfilled by his chancellor, Count Axel Oxenstierna, who directed the Swedish government during the minority of the monarch’s daughter, Christina. Christina came of age and was crowned in 1644.

By the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, which ended the Thirty Years’ War, Sweden acquired a large part of Pomerania, the island of Rügen, Wismar, the sees of Bremen and Verden, and other German territory, which entitled the Swedish sovereign to three votes in the diet of the Holy Roman Empire. Sweden thereby became the greatest power in the Baltic area.

In 1654 Queen Christina abdicated, naming her cousin Charles X Gustav as her successor; she lived the rest of her life in Rome. Pursuing his predecessor’s policy of military aggression, Charles, who ruled until 1660, declared war on Poland (the First Northern War, 1655-1660). By the Peace of Oliva of May 1660, Poland formally ceded Livonia to Sweden. In 1658 Charles X invaded Denmark twice and wrested from it the provinces in southern Sweden that Denmark had retained in the 16th century.

Charles’s son and successor, Charles XI, allied himself with King Louis XIV of France, in the French wars of the late 17th century. Sweden, however, still a comparatively small and not overly wealthy country, did not have the resources to sustain such militarism despite its Baltic conquests. In 1675 the Swedes, as French allies, were severely defeated by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, at Fehrbellin. At the same time, Charles struck at fundamental Swedish liberties in a reorganization of the Swedish government, weakening the council of state and the Riksdag, and making himself an absolute monarch. In 1680 he confiscated all large estates. Sweden again became an efficient military state, but only temporarily.

C.

The Great Northern War

Charles XII, son and successor to Charles XI, was a military genius. Not long after his accession, at the age of 15, he successfully engaged an aggressive coalition of Russia, Poland, and Denmark in the beginning of the Great Northern War (1700-1721). During the first years of this conflict, Sweden brilliantly asserted its position as the greatest military power of the Baltic. In 1700 Charles successfully invaded north-western Russia, and by 1706 he had defeated the Poles.

While Charles was engaging Poland, however, Peter the Great of Russia was establishing his dominion on the Baltic coasts. In 1709 the Swedish army was routed by Russian forces at the Battle of Poltava, marking the collapse of Sweden and its replacement by Russia as the Baltic’s dominant power. By the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt in 1721, Sweden lost much of its German territory and ceded Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia, and several important Baltic islands to Russia.

Charles XII had died in 1718, and with him ended the male line of the house of Vasa. He was succeeded by his sister, Ulrika Eleanora, conditional on her acceptance of a new constitution destroying the absolute monarchy and vesting the legislative power in a Riksdag of four estates (nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants). The executive power became the province of a so-called secret committee of the first three estates. Thus, the aristocracy had governmental control once again, which it kept for more than 50 years.

In 1771, Gustav III came to the throne and, taking advantage of general dissatisfaction with the high-handed policies of the aristocracy, managed to take over the government. He promulgated a new constitution and restored absolute monarchy. At first his policies were liberal, but after 1789, with the start of the French Revolution, his rule became despotic; he was assassinated in 1792.

D.

Napoleonic Wars

Gustav’s son and successor, Gustav IV Adolph, was bitterly opposed to Napoleon of France, and in 1805 joined the Third Coalition against him, composed of Great Britain, Sweden, Russia, and Austria. Russia deserted the coalition for an alliance with Napoleon in 1807 and a year later invaded Finland, menacing Sweden. Gustav was deposed by an army revolt in 1809. The Riksdag then formulated a new constitution, which remained in force until 1975, and in 1809 elected as the new king the former king’s uncle, Charles XIII.

Sweden concluded two treaties, one with Russia in 1809, ceding most of Finland and the Åland Islands, and another with France in 1810, by which a pro-Napoleonic policy was adopted. Charles XIII was childless, and the Riksdag chose Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, Prince of Pontecorvo and one of Napoleon’s generals, as Crown prince, in an effort to conciliate Napoleon. The marshal accepted, and an Act of Settlement, fixing the succession in the Bernadotte dynasty, was enacted in 1810. Bernadotte almost immediately became the dominant influence in Swedish policy. Withdrawing his allegiance from France, he fought with the Coalition against Napoleon in 1813-1814. In the latter year Denmark was forced to yield Norway to Sweden, receiving in exchange the Swedish possessions in Pomerania. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden no longer possessed territory in Germany. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, recognized the union of Norway with Sweden.

E.

The Early Bernadottes

In 1818 Bernadotte succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV John. As a foreigner, he was not popular, and his reign (1818-1844) was characterized by a stuggle for control between the throne and the Riksdag. However, Bernadotte was an able administrator, and the united kingdoms of Norway and Sweden made considerable progress, materially, politically, and culturally. His successors, Oscar I, Charles XV, and Oscar II, were accepted as Swedes. Between 1864 and 1866 the constitution was revised, giving the Riksdag, then bicameral, a form close to its present one.

Between 1867 and 1886, nearly 500,000 Swedes emigrated to America because of food and job shortages. The union with Norway began to show strains in the late 19th century, and in June 1905 the Norwegian legislature proclaimed its dissolution, an act ratified without strong opposition by the Riksdag. During the reign of Oscar II notable progress was made in social legislation, including factory laws, accident insurance and pension funds for workers, and limitation of working hours for women and children.

F.

Sweden During the World Wars

In 1907 Gustav V succeeded to the throne, and two years later constitutional amendments extended the voting franchise and inaugurated proportional representation.

In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, Sweden declared its neutrality and subsequently entered an agreement with Norway and Denmark to defend the neutrality and protect the common economic interests of the Scandinavian countries. Sweden joined the League of Nations in 1920. Led by the great Swedish statesman Karl Hjalmar Branting, the Social Democratic Labour Party became the leading force in Swedish politics. Socialist governments remained in power until 1928, enacting social reforms that made Sweden prominent in this regard. The Conservative Party was brought into office in 1928, but the coming of a worldwide economic and industrial depression shortly afterwards restored the Social Democrats to office in 1932.

In the late 1930s, when war seemed imminent in Europe, military preparation and national defence became a paramount question. The Swedish government proclaimed neutrality on the outbreak of World War II. Despite frequent border incidents and German attacks on Swedish shipping, the country maintained its neutral status throughout the war. Swedish people played a part in sheltering Jewish refugees escaping the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Europe.

G.

Neutrality and Defence Questions

In July 1945, after the close of hostilities in Europe, the wartime coalition Cabinet resigned and the Social Democrats, under Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson, resumed full control of the government. Tage Erlander, formerly Minister of Education and Church Affairs, succeeded to the premiership in October 1946, after the death of Hansson. The following month Sweden became the 54th member of the UN.

Sweden maintained a neutral attitude in the ensuing Cold War. In 1948 it joined the US-sponsored European Recovery Programme, along with the other western European nations, but refused to become a member of NATO, formed in 1949. Failing in efforts to form a Scandinavian defence bloc without ties to the East or West, Sweden began systematically to strengthen its defences.

Important domestic events in Sweden were the death in 1950 of Gustav V, the accession of his oldest son as Gustav VI Adolph, the creation of a Social Democratic-Agrarian coalition government in 1951, and the development of strong inflationary pressures in the Swedish economy from 1951 to 1952. In the elections held in September 1956, the Social Democrat-Agrarian coalition remained in power despite a joint loss of 11 seats in the lower house of the Riksdag.

The conviction of many Swedish military leaders that Sweden would be unable to preserve its neutrality in the event of another general war prompted many Swedes to question the traditional Swedish policy of neutrality. In March 1957 a report issued by 12 Swedish defence experts recommended that the Swedish armed forces be equipped with nuclear weapons. In April, Sweden, together with Denmark, Norway, and Finland, announced the intention of the four countries to sponsor a Scandinavian institute for atomic research in Copenhagen.

H.

Expanded Welfare State

Political controversy was engendered in 1957 by conflicting proposals for financing (plans to expand) old-age pension provisions. In a referendum held in October, the Social Democratic proposal, which called for compulsory contributions and for a government guarantee of the value of the benefits against inflation, won a plurality but not a majority of the votes. Nevertheless, the Social Democrats pressed in parliament for enactment of their plan, and the Agrarians thereupon withdrew from the government coalition. A new government, again headed by Erlander and consisting wholly of Social Democrats, was formed in late October.

In April 1958 the United States agreed to help fund Sweden’s construction of a nuclear reactor. In the same month the Erlander government fell because of disagreement between parties on the pension plan, but elections in June returned him to power. Parliamentary approval of the pension plan was obtained on May 14, 1959. Later that year Sweden became a founding member of the European Free Trade Association. Elections in 1960 resulted in another Social Democratic victory, and Erlander remained prime minister. When he retired from his post in 1969, Olof Palme, former education minister, was named to succeed him. A constitutional revision effective in 1971 reorganized the legislature into a unicameral body and implemented a new electoral system. In 1973 Gustav VI Adolph died and was succeeded by his grandson, Carl XVI Gustaf. On January 1, 1975, a new constitution, dissolving the remaining power of the king, came into force.

Swedish opposition to the Vietnam War damaged relations with the United States in the late 1960s and 1970s; many young American opponents of the war received political asylum in Sweden. Criticism of US military actions by Prime Minister Palme in 1972 brought US-Swedish diplomatic relations to the verge of severance until 1974.

I.

Fall and Return of the Social Democrats

Sweden weathered the world economic slump of 1974-1975 well, but was troubled by a high inflation rate, growing foreign debts, and large budget deficits. In the September 1976 elections, the Social Democrats, after 44 years in office, lost to a coalition of the Centre, Conservative, and Liberal parties.

In 1977 Prime Minister Thorbjörn Fälldin introduced austerity measures to dampen inflation and encourage exports. Fälldin’s government resigned over the issue of nuclear power generation in 1978, but he returned to the helm the following year after an interim minority Liberal government.

In May 1980 there was a rare general strike that brought the country to a virtual standstill for ten days. The following October the government survived a no-confidence motion by just one vote. In May 1981 thousands of white-collar workers went on strike as the government coalition split. Another general strike was averted, however, and Fälldin then formed a Centre-Liberal minority government.

I.1.

Assassination of Olof Palme

The Social Democrats returned to power in the parliamentary elections of 1982 and retained their dominance after the 1985 elections. Palme resumed the position of prime minister in 1982. His assassination on February 28, 1986, in Stockholm caused a huge emotional response in Sweden. The murder remains unsolved, although one suspect was jailed and subsequently released on appeal due to lack of evidence. Various motives have been suggested including Palme’s outspoken criticism of the apartheid regime in South Africa. He was succeeded by Deputy Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson, who retained Palme’s Cabinet and vowed to continue his predecessor’s policies.

I.2.

1988 and 1994 Elections

The Social Democrats held their comfortable majority in the 1988 elections, but Carlsson resigned in 1990 after the Riksdag rejected a proposal for a temporary freeze on wages, prices, and rents. He later formed a new government, and a modified austerity programme, allowing some wage increases, was adopted. In September 1991 elections, however, the Social Democrats suffered a stunning upset, though they remained the largest party in the Riksdag, with 138 seats. The Green Party failed to win the necessary 4 per cent of the vote required for representation. Ingvar Carlsson resigned, and the leader of the Moderate Party, Carl Bildt, formed a coalition of the Moderate, Centre, Liberal, and Christian Democrat parties.

The new government began to accelerate deregulation of the economy, including the eventual privatization of 35 state-owned companies; large cuts in government spending, including further reductions in welfare payments; and the removal of restrictions on foreign-majority-owned enterprises in Sweden. The coalition survived only until the September 1994 elections, which saw the return of Carlsson, albeit at the head of a minority Social Democrat government. The election was dominated by economic issues, notably unemployment, which had risen from 5 per cent in 1991 to 14 per cent. It was notable for the strong showing of women in the poll; the number of seats held by women increased from 116 to 143, or 41 per cent of the Riksdag. Half of Carlsson’s Cabinet was composed of women.

I.3.

The 1990s and Beyond

In May 1994 the European Parliament recommended Sweden for membership of the EU. A referendum to approve membership was held on November 13, 1994. Swedes voted by 52.2 per cent to 46.9 per cent in an 83 per cent turnout poll to join the EU in 1995. Sweden became an official member state in January 1995, and held the presidency for a six-month term at the beginning of 2001.

Carlsson resigned from the office for personal reasons in March 1996 and was succeeded by his former finance minister, Göran Persson, who had been responsible for tough fiscal policies under Carlsson. A range of incentives was announced, designed to stimulate the economy and reduce the level of unemployment.

In September 1998 a general election returned Persson's government to power, but with a reduced majority. The Social Democratic Labour Party (SAP) controlled 131 seats in Sweden's 349-seat parliament, with the Left Party almost doubling its share of the vote and number of seats. The result was widely judged a poor one for Persson, who needed to seek support in a coalition.

In 1999 the government announced plans to compensate up to 60,000 people who were sterilized as part of a eugenics programme. The 40-year-long programme, which lasted until the mid-1970s, had been a matter of public record but had not been the subject of wide public knowledge until 1997. By August 2001, SKr265 million had been paid in compensation to surviving victims.

Despite media reports in October 2001 of a “confession” by Christer Pettersson to the Olaf Palme murder, the authorities said his case would not be reopened without significant new evidence and a confession by Pettersson to the legal authorities rather than to a newspaper, Britain’s The Financial Times. In the general election of September 15, 2002, the Social Democrats were returned to power, with 144 seats in the 349-seat Riksdag. Persson campaigned on a ticket of support for the welfare state by advocating continued funding for education and health services. The ease with which the Left won bucked the trend towards right-of-centre parties gaining control in many other European countries. Persson’s government survived an early vote of no confidence after securing the support of the Green Party.

A referendum on adopting the Euro as Sweden’s currency was held in September 2003, and resulted in a clear rejection of the proposal. Persson attracted some criticism for the way he conducted the pro-Euro campaign, though ultimately the referendum was overshadowed by the assassination of Persson’s leading ally and the minister responsible for leading the “yes” campaign, the foreign minister Anna Lindh, days before the vote. In March 2004 Mijailo Mijailovic was convicted of her murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.

The general election of September 2006 was closely fought, with a centre-right alliance led by the Moderate Party’s Fredrik Reinfeldt defeating Persson’s Social Democrats by just 7 seats in the 349-seat legislature, the Riksdag. Reinfeldt campaigned on a platform of cutting taxes and reforming Sweden’s generous social security system, seen as one of the best but also one of the most expensive systems in the world. He was sworn in in October.