I.

Introduction

Mali, officially Republic of Mali, landlocked republic, western Africa, bordered on the north-east by Algeria, on the east by Niger, on the south by Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, and Guinea, and on the west by Senegal, and Mauritania. A former French colony, it gained independence on June 20, 1960. The area of the country is 1,240,192 sq km (478,841 sq mi). The capital of Mali is Bamako.

II.

Land and Resources

Most of Mali consists of low plains broken occasionally by rocky hills. In the south-east the Hombori Mountains rise to 1,155 m (3,789 ft), and in the south-west the Bambouk and Manding mountains are separated by an area of sandy lowlands north and north-west of the River Niger, which cuts an arc across Mali. The northern third of the country lies within the Sahara. In the west is a part of the Sahel, a semi-arid transitional zone between the savannah areas of the south and the Sahara desert to the north.

A.

Climate

The climate of the parts of Mali not in the Sahara is hot and dry with average temperatures ranging from about 24° to 32° C (75° to 90° F) in the south, and higher in the north. Annual rainfall declines from about 1,400 mm (55 in) in the south to some 1,120 mm (44 in) at Bamako and less than 127 mm (5 in) in the north.

B.

Natural Resources

Mali is a predominantly agricultural country. The most valuable resource is the River Niger, which abounds in fish; its waters are used for irrigation. Mineral resources include phosphates, salt, gold, and uranium.

C.

Plants and Animals

In the southern Saharan zone of Mali are found mimosa and gum trees; in the central region, thorny plants; and in the south, kapok, baobab, and shea trees. Animals include cheetah, oryx, gazelle, giraffe, warthog, lion, leopard, antelope, and jackal.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Mali's environment suffers from rapid population growth and an ongoing drought that has lasted for decades. Despite the drought, 82 per cent (1998) of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood. Traditional fuels, particularly fuel wood and charcoal, provide 88 per cent (1996) of all energy used in the country. Consequently, Mali—which is only 9.5 per cent (1995) forested—has a 1 per cent (1990-1996) annual rate of deforestation. Drought, deforestation, and increased farming of marginal lands are causing soil degradation and dramatic desertification in Mali, and the Sahara is expanding south at an alarming rate. The drought and loss of habitat, combined with poaching of threatened species, is helping drive animal species to extinction.

The country also suffers from water pollution due to poor sanitation. Only 6 per cent (1990-1998) of all Malians have access to adequate sanitation. As a result, water from rivers and wells is often contaminated with bacteria, and only 66 per cent (1990-1998) of the population has access to safe drinking water. The government has designated 3.7 per cent (1997) of Mali's total land area protected and has ratified international environmental agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, law of the sea, ozone layer protection, and wetlands.

III.

Population

Almost all the population of Mali is African; the major groups are the Bambara, Fulani, Tuareg, Soninke, Sénouf, Songhai, Malinké, and Dogon. Nomadic Tuaregs and other Berbers roam the Sahel and parts of the Sahara. The limited range of domestic economic opportunities means that seasonal emigration to neighbouring states is an integral part of Malian life; many people also emigrate permanently.

A.

Population Characteristics

Mali has a population of 11,995,402 (2007 estimate), giving an average population density of about 10 people per sq km (25 per sq mi). Around 34 per cent of the population is urbanized. Average life expectancy in 2007 was 48 years for males, and 52 years for females.

B.

Political Divisions

Mali is divided into eight administrative regions, subdivided into cercles and arondissements, plus the capital district of Bamako. The larger towns have elected mayors and council members.

C.

Principal Cities

The main cities are Bamako, the capital, with a population of 1,083,000 (1999 estimate); Ségou, 107,000 (1998); Sikasso, 90,000 (1998); and Mopti, 86,000 (1998). Ségou and Mopti are important fishing centres. Timbuktu (Tombouctou) is an important centre of religion and learning.

D.

Religion

Islam is the religion of about 90 per cent of the population, and about 9 per cent of the people follow traditional beliefs; about 1 per cent are Christians.

E.

Language

French is the official language (9,000 first-language speakers) but African languages are normally spoken. Bambara, a Niger-Congo language spoken by at least 2.7 million, tends to be used as the lingua franca. Thirty-eight other African languages are spoken, mostly from the Niger-Congo language family, including: Maasina Fulfulde (911,200), Mamara Senoufo (500,000 to 900,000), and Western Maninkakan (626,800). Five Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken in Mali, Koyraboro Senni Songhay (400,000) being the most widely used. Two Berber languages, Tamasheq (250,000 or more) and Tamajaq (30,000 to 40,000), are also heard, and Hasanya Arabic (106,100) is spoken in some areas.

F.

Education

Education is free and, in theory, compulsory between 7 and 16 years of age, but less than 25 per cent of all Malian children of primary school age attend schools. In 1993, primary school enrolment was about 496,000. Approximately 99,000 students were enrolled in secondary schools, including vocational and teacher-training institutions. Bamako has schools of administration, medicine, and engineering. Approximately 6,700 students attended institutions of higher education in Mali in 1993 and many study abroad. Higher education is provided by the University of Mali (1993) in Bamako. Adult literacy in 2005 was 50 per cent; 3 per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

IV.

Economy

Mali’s GNP (World Bank estimate) in 2004 was about US$4,335 million, giving a per capita income of US$380, one of the lowest in the world. The estimated annual budget in 1992 included US$376 million in revenue and US$697 million in expenditure. The economy is predominantly agricultural, and with 65 per cent of its land area desert or semi-desert, crops depend almost entirely on irrigation or seasonal flooding from the Niger and its tributaries. Small industrial enterprises consist primarily of cotton-ginning, food processing, cement production, and bicycle assembly. Fish from the Niger provide much of the diet of the people living along the river. The fishing industry produces a surplus, which is dried and smoked for export.

A.

Agriculture and Fishing

The cultivation of food crops occupies around 86 per cent of the economically active population of Mali. Prolonged droughts badly affect livestock herds and food production, and desertification is a major environmental problem. The main crops are millet, rice, sorghum, maize, peanuts, cotton, and sugar cane. Livestock raising is of major importance; in 2005 the livestock population included some 7.68 million cattle, 8.40 million sheep, 12 million goats, 472,000 camels, 720,000 donkeys, 172,000 horses, and 31 million poultry. During 2005 about 163,900 tonnes of peanuts and 600,000 tonnes of seed cotton and cotton lint were harvested. The fish catch in 2004 was 101,008 tonnes.

B.

Mining

Mineral resources have not been fully surveyed, but deposits of salt, phosphates, gold, and uranium have been exploited.

C.

Energy

In 2003 Mali produced some 820 million kWh of electricity; around 79 per cent was generated in hydroelectric installations.

D.

Currency and Banking

Mali is a member of the Franc Zone, and the monetary unit is the CFA franc of 100 centimes (503.31 francs equalled US$1; early 2007). The central bank of the states grouped in the west African currency area of the Franc Zone assumed Mali’s central banking functions in 1984; it is based in Dakar, Senegal.

E.

Commerce and Trade

Most foreign trade operations are in the hands of the state. Principal exports include cotton, livestock, peanuts, gold, and fish. The annual value of exports in 2001 was about US$519 million. Imports, largely petroleum products, motor vehicles, food products, machinery, and chemicals, amounted to about US$1,013 million. Mali’s main trading partners are France, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Belgium, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

F.

Transport

The Niger is the lifeline of Mali, being navigable by small steamboats for most of its course within the country from July to January. The Sénégal River is navigable from Kayes to St-Louis, in Senegal. A railway links Koulikoro, Bamako, and Kayes with the port of Dakar, in Senegal. Mali has about 15,100 km (9,383 mi) of roads, of which about 12 per cent are paved. In 1997 there were around 3 passenger cars per 1,000 people. International airports are located near Bamako (Senou) and Mopti. Air Mali, the state airline, provides international and domestic services.

G.

Communications

Telephone, telegraph, and radio and television services are publicly owned and operated. Telecommunications are in the developmental stage; there were approximately 6 telephones per 1,000 people in use in 1997, as well as an estimated 570,000 radios, and 160,000 televisions.

H.

Health and Welfare

In 2004 there were 22,503 people per doctor and in 2007 the infant mortality rate was 106 deaths per 1,000 live births, one of the world’s highest. In 1990, 5.1 per cent of the country’s national budget was spent on health care.

I.

International Organizations

Mali is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the African Union, and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).

V.

Government

Until 1991, Mali was governed under a constitution drawn up in 1974 and made effective, with amendments, in 1979. Elected twice without opposition, President Moussa Traoré ruled from 1969 as a dictator, and from 1979 through the nation’s sole legal political party, the Democratic Union of the Malian People, founded in 1979. After a coup in March 1991 deposed Traoré, this party was dissolved.

A new constitution, approved by popular referendum in January 1992, established Mali as a multi-party republic with a president directly elected to a five-year term (limited to two terms). The president appoints the prime minister, who selects the other members of the council of ministers. The unicameral National Assembly consists of 160 deputies, 147 in single-seat constituencies elected for five-year terms and 13 seats representing the interests of Malians abroad. In May 2002, Amadou Toumani Touré, leader of the 1991 coup, was elected president, replacing Alpha Oumar Konaré. He was re-elected for a further term in 2007 with more than 71 per cent of the vote.

VI.

History

Mali was the core area of the great empires of the western Sudan: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, with centres of trade, learning, and culture in such cities as Djenné, Timbuktu, and Gao.

The state of Ghana originated early in the Christian era and reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. The empire of Mali originated in the 11th century, but its period of greatness began under Sundiata, who ruled from around 1235 to 1255, and reached its peak in the early 14th century under Mansa Musa, who extended the empire until it reached from the Atlantic coast to east of Gao.

The decline of Mali was rapid, although the kings continued to rule until 1645. Its place was taken by the Songhai Empire of Gao, whose great kings were Sunni Ali, from 1464 to 1492, and Askia Muhammad, from 1493 to 1528. At its greatest extent, Songhai reached from the Atlantic to Kano, now in northern Nigeria, and included most of modern Mali and parts of Guinea. Most of the empire was destroyed by a Moroccan invasion in 1591.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, several small states developed along the Niger basin, notably that of Segu. The states fell during the mid-19th-century holy war waged by the Muslim leader al-Hajj Umar, whose theocratic empire extended from Timbuktu to the headwaters of the Niger and Senegal rivers. His son and successor, Ahmadu, was defeated by the French in 1893.

In 1904 modern Mali was made part of the French colony of Haut-Senegal-Niger, and in 1920 was constituted the French Sudan, as a constituent territory of French West Africa.

A.

Towards Independence

African political activity was banned by the French in Mali until after World War II. Various parties were formed, which eventually merged to form the Sudanese Union, which became the Malian section of the inter-territorial African Democratic Rally. By the time of the 1957 political reforms, the Sudanese Union was the main party.

In 1958 the French Sudan voted to join the new French Community, and it was proclaimed the Sudanese Republic on November 24, 1958. On January 17, 1959, it joined with Senegal to form the Federation of Mali, which proclaimed its independence on June 20, 1960, with Modibo Keita as its president. The federation broke up in September. Senegal became a separate state; the former French Sudan retained the name Mali and Keita remained the president of the new Republic of Mali, proclaimed on September 22, 1960. Later that same month the republic became a member of the UN. After independence, Mali pursued a policy of economic development along socialist lines.

B.

The Traoré Regime

In November 1968 army officers overthrew the one-man rule of President Keita and established a military junta led by Lieutenant Moussa Traoré, who later assumed the presidency. His government, however, was unable to advance the economy appreciably, having to contend both with lack of capital and a famine-causing drought in the mid-1970s. An internal power struggle in 1978 led to an attempted coup. In the aftermath, several former members of the junta were tried and sentenced, while political unrest and repression spread.

President Traoré, running as the only candidate, was returned to office in 1979 and 1985. Mali was hard hit by the drought of the mid-1980s. A border war with Burkina Faso was halted by a ceasefire in late 1985. Under pressure from its creditors, Mali restructured its economy in the late 1980s to privatize unprofitable government enterprises. Traoré was overthrown in March 1991 by a group of army officers.

A new constitution providing for a multi-party republic was approved in January 1992. Legislative elections were held in March, resulting in victory for the Alliance for Democracy in Mali (ADEMA), which set up a coalition government with two smaller parties. Alpha Oumar Konaré, the ADEMA leader, became the first democratically elected president in April. An attempted coup by supporters of Traoré collapsed in December 1993.

C.

Tuareg Rebellion

From the late 1980s northern Mali was riven by strife. Fighting broke out between the settled African population and the nomadic Tuareg, and at the same time the region became involved in a general rebellion of Tuareg demanding greater autonomy from the governments of Mali, Niger, and Algeria, whose borders cross traditional Tuareg territory. In 1992 a peace agreement, the Bamako Accord, was reached with the main Tuareg groups represented in the Unified Movements and Fronts of Azawad (MFUA). Conflict continued with smaller groups into 1995.

In 1996 more than 2,000 Tuareg former rebels were integrated into the regular army. The long conflict led to some 120,000 people becoming refugees; after November, 25,000 Malian Tuareg refugees were repatriated from Niger.

D.

Under Konaré

In May 1997 President Konaré was re-elected, and his ADEMA party returned to power following two rounds of legislative elections held, after several postponements, in July and August. Ibrahim Boubacar Keita resigned as prime minister in September, but was reappointed by President Konaré the following day. In the same month it was reported that Switzerland had agreed to return funds to Mali, amounting to some US$2.67 million, that had been embezzled and deposited by an anonymous associate of former president Moussá Traoré.

In January 1999, Traoré—already serving one prison sentence—his wife Mariam Cissoko, and his brother-in-law Abraham Cissoko, were sentenced to death after being found guilty on embezzlement charges. The sentences were commuted, in September, to life imprisonment and hard labour.

As tribal violence escalated in 1999, President Konaré announced, in November, that he would not run for the presidency in the election planned for 2002. A new prime minister, Mande Sidibé—formerly an official with the International Monetary Fund—was appointed after the resignation of Ibrahim Boukabar Keita, and formed his Cabinet in February 2000. In July, a fourth report was published which highlighted alleged corruption in government-owned companies and other public bodies. Presidential elections in May 2002 saw a substantial victory for Amadou Toumani Touré, leader of the March 1991 coup. Parliamentary elections followed in July, with Espoir 2002, a coalition of parties including the Rally for Mali, taking 66 of the 147 seats. Ahmed Mohamed Ag Hamani was appointed as prime minister, but the government resigned suddenly in October. In April 2004, Hamani was replaced by Ousmane Issoufi Maïga. Further parliamentary elections were held in July 2007, with a new coalition, the Alliance for Democracy in Mali, taking 113 of the 147 seats. Prime Minister Maïga resigned in September 2007 and was replaced by Modibo Sidibé.

In a landmark advance the government signed a peace agreement with Tuareg rebels in 2006; however, a renegade splinter group, aligning itself with warring Tuareg groups in neighbouring Niger, began attacking troops in the north of Mali in 2007.