I.

Introduction

Tunisia, republic in northern Africa, bordered on the north and east by the Mediterranean Sea, on the south by Libya, and on the west by Algeria. The total area is 164,418 sq km (63,482 sq mi). The capital city is Tunis.

II.

Land and Resources

Tunisia’s Mediterranean coast is indented by many harbours and inlets, notably the gulfs of Tunis, Hammamet, and Gabes (Qābis). The Gulf of Gabes contains the islands of Jarbah (Djerba) and Qarqannah (Kerkennah). The total length of coastline is about 1,148 km (713 mi).

Tunisia may be divided, from north to south, into four main topographic regions. In the north, low-lying spurs of the Maritime Atlas Mountains traverse the country in a south-western to north-eastern direction. Peaks range in elevation from about 610 to 1,520 m (2,000 to 5,000 ft). Fertile valleys and plains are interspersed among the mountains of this region.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The country’s only major river, the Majardah, crosses the region from west to east, emptying into the Gulf of Tunis. To the south the mountains give way to a plateau that averages about 610 m (2,000 ft) in elevation. Further south, the plateau descends gradually to a chain of low-lying salt lakes, known as shatts, or chotts, which extend east-west across the country. Several of these lakes lie below sea level. To the south the shatts adjoin the Sahara Desert, which constitutes about 40 per cent of Tunisia’s land area.

B.

Climate

In general, a mild Mediterranean climate prevails in the north of Tunisia; towards the south the climate becomes progressively hotter and drier. In the north, temperatures average 8.9° C (48° F) in January and 25.6° C (78° F) in July. The northern regions have a rainy season that lasts from October to May. Average annual rainfall is about 610 mm (24 in) but may vary greatly from year to year. Annual rainfall decreases to the south and is only about 200 mm (8 in) in the Sahara.

C.

Natural Resources

Petroleum is Tunisia’s principal mineral resource. Reserves exist both offshore and on land, particularly in the south, and important new deposits were discovered in the early 1980s. Other mineral resources include natural gas, phosphates, iron ore, lead, and zinc.

D.

Plants and Animals

The plant life of Tunisia, particularly that found in the coastal region, is similar to that of southern Europe. The fertile, well-watered regions of the north are characterized by flourishing vineyards and by dense forests of cork oak, pine, and juniper trees. Farther south, the semi-arid conditions support a steppe vegetation dominated by wild grasses, notably esparto grass, and a wide variety of shrubs. In the arid regions of the extreme south, date palms flourish in oases. Among the wildlife found in the country are hyena, wild boar, jackal, gazelle, and hare. Several varieties of poisonous snakes, including cobras and horned vipers, are also present.

E.

Environmental Concerns

The growth in the country's population has led to increased demand for farmland. As agricultural production has increased, so have marginal land use and overgrazing, resulting in extensive soil erosion and desertification. Only 3.6 per cent (1995) of the country's total land area is forested, and this figure is shrinking as the country experiences a 0.5 per cent (1990-1996) annual rate of deforestation.

Water is scarce in Tunisia, and drought is common. The country does more to treat sewage than many of its neighbours, but untreated urban sewage is still a problem, contaminating water supplies and causing eutrophication of the country's Mediterranean waters. In rural areas, only 52 per cent (1990-1998) of the population has access to adequate sanitation. In addition, toxic wastes from industrial processes are not disposed of effectively, presenting human health risks.

Only 0.3 per cent (1997) of the country's land area is protected. Ichkeul National Park, in northern Tunisia, protects a lake and its surrounding wetlands that are a resting area for hundreds of thousands of migrating birds, including ducks, geese, and pink flamingos. The park was declared a World Heritage Site in 1980. The government of Tunisia has ratified international environmental agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, law of the sea, marine dumping, nuclear test ban, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands.

III.

Population

Throughout history, many peoples, including Romans, Vandals, black Africans, and Arabs, have invaded or settled in the region that is now Tunisia. Tunisians, however, are essentially of Berber stock, although fewer than 2 per cent speak the Berber language. As a result of Arabization, Arabic has become the language of the Tunisian people, who have come to regard themselves as Arabs.

A.

Population Characteristics

Tunisia has a population of 10,276,158 (2007 estimate), which yields an average population density of 66 people per sq km (171 per sq mi). About three quarters of the population lives in the coastal region. The arid central and southern parts make up 70 per cent of the total land area, but contain less than 30 per cent of the population.

B.

Principal Cities

The capital and largest city of Tunisia is the seaport of Tunis, with a population of 1,897,000 (2000 estimate). Other important cities include Sfax, or Şafāqis (population, 1998 estimate, 248,800); Sūsah, or Sousse (population, 1994, 125,000); and Bizerte, or Bizerta (population, 1998 estimate, 105,520).

C.

Religion

Islam is the state religion and is adhered to by more than 99 per cent of the population; virtually all Muslims in Tunisia belong to the Sunni branch. There are small numbers of Roman Catholics, Jews, Greek Orthodox, and Protestants.

D.

Language

Six languages are spoken in Tunisia. Standard Arabic is the official language but Tunisian Spoken Arabic is the most widely used language (spoken by 98 per cent of the population). Standard Arabic is not a mother tongue: it is learnt in schools and places of worship and is used in official domains. French is spoken as a first language by a minority of Tunisians, a relic of Tunisia’s former status as a French protectorate. The Berber language, Djerbi, also survives as a minority tongue.

E.

Education

Education in Tunisia is free, and virtually all eligible children attend primary school. Instruction is conducted mainly in Arabic, although French is also used, especially at the college and university levels. In 1997–1998 some 4,417 primary schools had a total enrolment of about 1.37 million pupils, and some 712 secondary schools, about 1,143,082. In addition, more than 60,000 students were enrolled at vocational and technical schools. In the same year more than 226,102 students were enrolled in institutions of higher education, primarily the three divisions of the University of Tunis (1960). Adult literacy was 76.2 per cent in 2005. In 2002–2003, 6.7 per cent per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

F.

Culture

Tunisia has three major libraries, all based in Tunis. The National Library has a collection of more than 700,000 volumes. The Musée National du Bardo, founded in 1888 in Tunis, has collections of Punic, Greek, Roman, and Islamic art. Tunis also has a state-supported municipal theatre, but much theatre activity takes place at the International Cultural Centre at al-Hammamat. The Carthage Festival, an international arts festival, is held annually at the site of the ancient city. Tunisia was selected to host the African Nations Cup in 2004.

IV.

Economy

The Tunisian economy was dominated by agriculture and mining, but has become increasingly diversified. Tourism is important, and manufacturing is expanding. State control of the economy was reduced during the late 1980s, with the increasing privatization of trade and commerce, simplification of the tax system, and a cautious approach to foreign debt. Economic growth averaged 4.2 per cent from 1991 to 1995, and inflation has been moderate. In 2004 Tunisia had a GNP of US$26,308 million (World Bank figure), or US$2,880 per capita. In 2005 the estimated annual national budget showed US$8,450 million in revenue and US$8,508 million in expenditure.

A.

Agriculture and Fishing

Annual agricultural yields in Tunisia fluctuate because of the frequency of drought and the lack of extensive water resources for irrigation. The leading crops in the fertile plains of the north include wheat, of which an estimated 1,360,000 tonnes were produced in 2005, vegetables and watermelons (2,200,430), cereals (2,133,700). On the Cape Bon Peninsula, the growing of oranges (101,000) is particularly important. Among other major crops are olives (475,000), grown in the semi-arid central regions, and dates (84,000), grown in oases in the Sahara region. About half the productive land is used for grazing, and, because of drought, the livestock industry is also subject to fluctuations. In 2005 the country’s livestock included about 7.21 million sheep, 1.43 million goats, 686,320 cattle, and 231,000 camels.

A growing fishing industry exists along the coast of Tunisia. In 2004 the catch stood at nearly 112,796 tonnes. The catch includes sardines, pilchards, tuna, and whitefish.

B.

Mining

Although not as rich in petroleum as its neighbours, Libya and Algeria, Tunisia does have several substantial deposits. Production of crude oil in 2004 totalled 27.4 million barrels. The country is also a major world producer of phosphates (2.40 million tonnes in 2004). Other mining products in 2003 included natural gas (2.15 billion cu m, or 75.9 billion cu ft), iron ore (128,500 tonnes), and zinc (31,000 tonnes).

C.

Manufacturing

The Tunisian government has encouraged the development of export-oriented industries. Major industries include a sugar refinery at Bajah (Béja), a petroleum refinery at Bizerte, a steel plant at Menzel-Bourguiba, and phosphate-processing and cement-making plants. Other manufactures are sulphuric acid, textiles, forest products, and processed agricultural and fishing products.

D.

Tourism

Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange in Tunisia, and the government has done much to expand and improve the country’s tourist facilities. In 2005 6.38 million visitors generated around US$385 million for the Tunisian economy. Among the country’s attractions are its fine beaches and its archaeological sites, including the site of the ancient city of Carthage.

E.

Energy

In 2003 the electricity-generating facilities of Tunisia had an installed capacity of 1.5 million kW and generated 11.6 billion kWh of electricity a year. Almost all (99.2 per cent) of the country’s electricity was generated in thermal plants.

F.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Tunisia is the Tunisian dinar of 1,000 millimes (1.323 dinar equalled US$1; early 2007). Currency is issued by the Central Bank of Tunisia (1958; Banque Centrale de Tunisie).

G.

Commerce and Trade

The annual foreign trade of Tunisia usually shows a deficit. In 2003 exports totalled US$7,354 million and imports, US$10,147 million. Principal exports include petroleum, clothing, fodder, olive oil, and phosphates. Other important exports include wine, citrus fruits, iron and steel, and lead. Among the leading imports are machinery, petroleum products, iron and steel, electric machinery, and food. Tunisia’s principal trading partners are France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the United States.

H.

Labour

Of the economically active Tunisian population, about 22 per cent works in agriculture and fishing, 34 per cent in industry, and 43 per cent in services. Unemployment and underemployment are chronic national problems. Unemployment, which exceeded 16 per cent in the mid-1990s, was 13 per cent in 1996. The major trade union organization, the General Union of Tunisian Workers, has about 330,000 members in 23 affiliated unions.

I.

Transport

In 2001 Tunisia had a road network of about 18,997 km (11,804 mi) connecting important commercial centres; about 65 per cent of the roads were paved. There were around 60 passenger cars per 1,000 people. The country is also served by about 1,909 km (1,186 mi) of railway track. Tunisia has four major ports—Tunis, Bizerte, Sūsah, and Sfax. A fifth port, as-Sukhayrah, specializes in petroleum bunkering. A modern port is also being constructed at Gabes (Qābis). The country has six international airports, two of which serve Tunis. The national carrier is Tunis Air.

J.

Communications

The Tunisian press includes 8 and more than three dozen other periodicals. Both radio and television broadcasting are under government operation. In 1999 the number of radio receivers was about 1 million and the number of television sets was about 1,900,000. The number of telephones in the same period exceeded 421,000.

V.

Government

According to the constitution of 1959 Tunisia is a free, independent, and sovereign republic.

A.

Executive and Legislature

National executive power in Tunisia is exercised by the president, who is head of state and commander-in-chief of the army, and who also appoints a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, which is responsible to the president. The constitution specifies that the president is to be popularly elected to a five-year term; in 1975, however, the National Assembly proclaimed President Habib Bourguiba as President for Life. Bourguiba held office until his ousting in November 1987. A referendum in May 2002 abolished the three-term limit on the presidency, enabling the incumbent president, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, to stand for re-election. He won his fourth term of office in 2004.

Legislative power in Tunisia is vested in the unicameral National Assembly, which comprises 189 members popularly elected to five-year terms. The National Assembly holds two sessions a year, each lasting not more than three months.

B.

Political Parties

The principal political party is the Constitutional Democratic Assembly (RCD; Rassemblement Constitutionelle et Démocratique, formerly the Destour Socialist Party), a moderate left-wing organization. The party permeates all aspects of political, social, and economic life in Tunisia. Other parties include the Movement of Democratic Socialists (MDS; Mouvement des Démocrates Socialistes); the Arab-nationalist Unionist Democratic Union (UDU; Union Démocratique Unioniste); the socialist Party of People’s Unity (PUP; Parti de l'Unité Populaire); the communist Movement for Renewal (MR; Mouvement de la Rénovation-Ettajdid); and the Social-Liberal Party (PSL; Parti Social-Libéral).

C.

Judiciary

Religious tribunals in Tunisia administering Islamic Shari’ah law have been abolished and their functions absorbed by the civil courts. The court of cassation, located in Tunis, has one criminal and three civil sections. At the next level are 3 Courts of Appeal—at Tunis, Sūsah, and Sfax—and below them 13 courts of the first instance. At the lowest level are cantonal justices in 51 local districts.

D.

Local Government

For administrative purposes, Tunisia is divided into 23 governorates, each headed by a governor who is appointed by the president.

E.

Health and Welfare

In 1994 Tunisia had about 5,300 doctors. There were 1,429 people per doctor and an infant mortality rate of 23 deaths per 1,000 live births. In 2000, 6.3 per cent of government expenditure was spent on health care, which is free and available to a majority of the population. A system of social security, instituted in 1950, provides maternity, health, and old-age benefits. Average life expectancy at birth in 2007 was 73.6 years for men, 77.2 years for women.

F.

Defence

In 2004 the armed forces of Tunisia comprised an army of about 27,000 personnel, a navy of 4,800, and an air force of 3,500. There is one year’s conscription. In 2003, Tunisia spent US$494 million (2 per cent of its gross domestic product; GDP) on defence.

G.

International Organizations

Tunisia is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Arab League, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the African Union.

VI.

History

In the earliest-known period of its history, the region now called Tunisia was part of the empire of Carthage. According to tradition, Phoenician traders founded the city of Carthage in 814 bc at a location slightly north-east of the site of modern Tunis. In subsequent centuries Carthage became the centre of a mighty empire that dominated most of northern Africa and intermittently ruled the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia, and parts of Sicily. Beginning in 264 bc Carthage clashed with the expanding Roman Empire in a series of bloody struggles known as the Punic Wars. In the last of these, the Third Punic War (149-146 bc), Rome defeated the Carthaginians and completely destroyed their capital. From the 2nd century bc to the 5th century ad most of the region now constituting Tunisia was part of the Roman province of Africa.

During the 5th century the Teutonic tribe known as the Vandals moved south through the Iberian Peninsula, crossed the Mediterranean, and wrested the province from Roman control. After a century of Vandal rule, from about 430 to 534, the region was reconquered for Rome by the Byzantine general Belisarius.

A.

Arab, Spanish, and Turkish Rule

The region of Tunisia was overrun by Arab adherents of Islam in the 7th century. The Arab conquerors ruled from the late 7th to the early 16th century, replacing the Roman-Christian culture with a Muslim way of life. During the Muslim era a succession of dynasties wielded power, notably the Aghlabites (800-909), the Fatimid caliphs (909-973), and the Zeirids (10th century). In the latter part of the 12th century the Normans, led by the Sicilian ruler Roger II, briefly occupied a number of important coastal points. The Arabs recovered the region later in the century, and the Arab Almohad (12th century) and Hafsite (1228-1574) dynasties succeeded to power. Arab political supremacy came to an end in the early 15th century.

During the period of Arab domination the region had come to be known as Tunis, or Tunisia, from its chief city. In 1534 the Mediterranean pirate Barbarossa II (Khayr ad-Din), captured the city of Tunis. He was expelled by Spanish forces in the following years. Spanish dominance in Tunisia was short-lived, however. In 1574 armies of the Ottoman Empire defeated the Spanish and assumed hegemony over Tunisia.

Under the Ottoman Turks, Tunisia enjoyed a period of relative stability from 1574 to 1881. Imperial rule was effected through native administrators, who were known as deys of Tunis until 1705 and as beys thereafter. The first bey, al-Husayn ibn Ali (reigned 1705-1740), founded the Husaynid dynasty. Husaynid rule secured for Tunisia a limited degree of autonomy and a large measure of prosperity.

B.

An End to Piracy

Piracy, long a major Tunisian enterprise, continued to flourish under Husaynid auspices. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries a number of European and other maritime nations paid regular bribes to the Tunisian government as insurance against raids on their Mediterranean shipping. Between 1801 and 1805 and in 1815 the United States Navy curbed Mediterranean piracy by attacking Tunis and other corsair bases along the so-called Barbary Coast of northern Africa.

As a result of the loss of its revenues from piracy, the Tunisian government was plunged deeply into debt. The financial crisis was made especially acute by the unrestrained personal extravagances of the beys and by the necessity for frequent, costly government reprisals against rebel uprisings. The chief creditors of Tunisia were France, Italy, and Britain, all of which had imperialist ambitions in northern Africa. In 1830 France conquered and annexed Algeria. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, France agreed to abandon any claim to the Mediterranean island of Cyprus in return for a similar assurance by Britain in regard to Tunisia. A French army entered Tunisia from Algeria in 1881, ostensibly to subdue unruly tribesmen. In a series of sharp conflicts the French crushed native Tunisian opposition. On May 12, 1881, the reigning bey signed the Treaty of Kasser Said, known also as the Bardo Treaty, which acknowledged Tunisia to be a French protectorate. The two countries signed the supplemental Convention of Marsa in 1883.

C.

The French Protectorate

French rule in Tunisia brought many important social and political changes. After 1884 a French resident-general governed the country, although the bey was the nominal ruler. A sizeable group of French settlers colonized the northern coastal region, filled administrative posts, and operated business enterprises. These settlers exerted a strong Westernizing influence.

During the early 1900s the widespread diffusion in Tunisia of European democratic ideals produced vigorous independence movements known collectively as the Young Tunisians. For several decades French authorities successfully suppressed the fledgling patriotic movements. In 1920, however, various nationalist groups united and formed the Destour (Constitutional) Party, which advocated extensive democratic reforms.

The Destour movement was disbanded in 1925, but it was revived during the economic depression of the 1930s. In 1934 the so-called Neo-Destour (or New Constitutional) Party was organized by the Tunisian patriot and statesman Habib Bourguiba. In contrast to the more moderate Destour Party, which looked for support only in Tunisia, the Neo-Destour Party sought and received aid from extreme leftist or nationalist groups in France, Morocco, and Algeria. The Destour and Neo-Destour parties were forced by the government to dissolve in 1938.

D.

World War II

The French authorities in Tunisia cooperated fully with the government of Vichy France, which ruled after that country capitulated to Germany on June 22, 1940, during World War II. Tunisia was important in Axis military operations. In November 1942 amphibious Allied forces landed in Algeria and Morocco. Germany poured troops and tanks into the northern regions of nearby Tunisia to resist the Allied advance. After several months of fighting the Allied forces pinned the German forces against the sea on the Cape Bon Peninsula, and on May 12, 1943, the Germans capitulated.

The surrender marked the final defeat of the Axis powers in northern Africa. On May 15 the Allies transferred control of Tunisia to the Free French. The French authorities immediately arrested hundreds of alleged Fascist sympathizers and deposed the reigning bey as a collaborator. These actions provoked deep resentment among the Tunisian people and prepared the way for the later renewal of nationalist agitation.

E.

Post-War Tunisia

In 1945 France forced Bourguiba to seek refuge in Cairo. In the following year France granted Tunisia status as a semi-autonomous associated state of the French Union. Further steps towards autonomy came in August 1947, when the French resident-general formed a ministry composed chiefly of Tunisians; the French, however, retained dominance of political power. In September 1949 Bourguiba returned from exile and resumed his campaign for Tunisian independence. France, in 1951, responding to the ensuing upsurge of nationalist sentiment, appointed more Tunisians to ministerial posts and in the civil service.

The following year the native Tunisian ministers attempted to air their grievances against the French before the UN Security Council, but they were prevented from doing so by a ruling that the dispute involved a domestic rather than an international question and hence did not fall under UN jurisdiction. Meanwhile, riots and political demonstrations occurred continually, especially in the northern region, rendering the French position in Tunisia increasingly untenable. The disorders continued unabated through the first half of 1954, during which time the French made, to no avail, repeated offers of limited reforms.

F.

Tunisian Resistance to French Rule

Anti-French disorders became increasingly violent late in July 1954. On July 31 the French premier Pierre Mendès-France arrived in Tunisia on a mission of conciliation. Mendès-France promised the protectorate full internal autonomy under a government composed of Tunisians. This statement proved acceptable to nationalist leaders, notably Bourguiba, and rioting came to a halt. Lengthy negotiations followed, and on June 3, 1955, the Tunisian premier Tahar ben Ammar and the French premier Edgar Faure signed a series of conventions and protocols that greatly increased the extent of Tunisian self-rule.

France retained control of Tunisian foreign policy and defence, however. On September 17 the first all-Tunisian government in 74 years was installed in Tunis. Many nationalists actively opposed the new regime and pressed for an even greater measure of independence from France. Further French concessions were embodied in a historic protocol signed in Paris on March 20, 1956. The agreement in effect abrogated the Bardo Treaty of 1881 and recognized Tunisia as a completely sovereign, constitutional monarchy under the bey of Tunis.

The first national legislative elections in Tunisian history, which took place on March 25, resulted in a decisive victory for the Neo-Destour Party. On April 8 Bourguiba was elected president of the first Tunisian National Assembly; on April 11, he was named premier. The assembly adopted a constitution transferring to the Tunisian people the legislative powers hitherto exercised by the bey. On November 12, 1956, Tunisia was admitted to the UN.

The political strength of the Neo-Destour Party was demonstrated again when on May 5, 1957, the party polled about 90 per cent of the vote in various municipal elections. Women voted in those elections for the first time.

G.

The Republic

On July 25, 1957, the National Assembly overthrew the last vestiges of the monarchy by deposing the bey, proclaiming Tunisia a republic, and electing Bourguiba as president. On August 5 all the bey’s properties and funds were confiscated by the republic and applied to a debt of US$3.84 million owed by the bey to the state. Widespread dismissals of French civil servants were carried out in the months following. As a result, about a third of the French residents of Tunisia, fearing further anti-French actions, fled the country, taking considerable amounts of capital and diminishing sharply the available reserves of technical and administrative skills.

Relations with France deteriorated in the late summer and autumn of 1957 as a result of clashes between French and Tunisian troops along the Tunisian-Algerian border. The clashes occurred when French troops, pursuing Algerian rebels, allegedly crossed the border into Tunisia.

In the early months of 1958 the crisis in foreign relations was exacerbated still further. On February 8 French military planes flew across the Algerian border and bombed the Tunisian village of Sakiet-Sidi-Youssef (now Saqiyat Sidi Yusuf), killing 68 Tunisians and wounding 100. French government representatives announced later the same day that the raid had been conducted in retaliation for the machine-gunning of French planes flying over the area on February 7.

Tunisia became a member state of the Arab League on October 1. On October 15, however, Tunisia ended its diplomatic relations with Egypt (then called the United Arab Republic). In November Tunisia resigned from the league.

On April 15, 1959, France and Tunisia signed an agreement continuing French technical assistance. In 1960 Tunisia agreed to make part payment for land confiscated from French nationals; France would pay the balance. A new constitution was promulgated on June 1, 1959. On November 8 the first elections under the constitution were held. Unopposed, Bourguiba was re-elected president, and the Neo-Destour Party won all seats in the National Assembly.

Following French rejection of a Tunisian note demanding the immediate evacuation of the naval base at Bizerte, Tunisian troops on July 19, 1961, began a siege of the base. In the next two days French forces broke the blockade and surrounded the entire city, taking a toll of 1,300 Tunisian lives. Both sides accepted a UN Security Council resolution of July 22 calling for a ceasefire. The UN General Assembly, in addition, on August 25 called on France to quit Bizerte altogether. Shortly thereafter both sides withdrew to the positions occupied before the fighting. After prolonged discussions between France and Tunisia, beginning in 1962, France completely withdrew from Bizerte in October 1963.

H.

Strengthened Ties with the Arab World

During 1963 and 1964 Tunisia moved towards closer economic and political cooperation in northern Africa. The border dispute with Algeria was settled, and schemes of technical cooperation were drawn up. Tunisian relations with Morocco also improved. During 1965-1966 Tunisia supported the establishment of the Maghreb Permanent Consultative Committee to work for greater North African regional cooperation.

Meanwhile, during 1963-1964, Tunisia had moved to strengthen ties with the Arab East, especially Egypt. In May 1964 the National Assembly enacted the expropriation of all foreign-owned lands, which mainly affected about 300,000 hectares (750,000 acres) belonging to French families. France’s reaction was to cancel all financial assistance to Tunisia, leaving the country in serious economic crisis.

I.

Tunisian Socialism

One implication of the nationalization of land was the beginnings of a greater emphasis toward socialist collectivism. During the elections of November 1964, renewed emphasis was placed on “Tunisian Socialism”, and the Neo-Destour Party changed its name to Parti Socialiste Destourien (Destour Socialist Party). In that election President Bourguiba, the sole candidate, won by 96 per cent of the votes; the Destour Party won all 90 of the National Assembly seats. In April 1965 Bourguiba’s newly forged ties with the Arab East were shattered when he unexpectedly proposed a negotiated settlement between the Arab states and Israel on the basis of the 1947 UN resolution. This was rejected by both Israel and most Arab states, led by Egypt. Differences between Tunisia and other Arab states were further exacerbated when relations with Egypt were severed, and Tunisia began to boycott Arab League meetings.

In 1966 a rapprochement was achieved between Tunisia and Saudi Arabia, but relations with Egypt further deteriorated. In the Yemeni war Tunisia supported Saudi Arabia. When the Arab-Israeli diplomatic confrontation intensified in April-May 1967, Tunisia gave full support to the Arab cause, and diplomatic relations with Egypt were restored.

Bourguiba was re-elected to a third term in November 1969. In December the National Assembly approved a constitutional amendment providing for a premier, to be appointed by the president, who would assume the presidency in case of death or disability. This was expected to ensure a continuation of the moderate domestic and foreign policies laid down by Bourguiba. In March 1969, he was named President for Life “in recognition of services rendered”.

J.

Growth of Islamic Fundamentalism

In the early 1970s Tunisia pursued peaceful economic development, particularly of its petroleum resources. Relations with France and China improved, but Bourguiba expressed his distrust of US and Soviet intentions in the Middle East. In 1982 Tunisia gave refuge to Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leader Yasir Arafat and several hundred of his followers who had been forced out of Lebanon.

Domestic rioting early in 1984 forced Bourguiba to rescind price increases on basic foodstuffs. Relations with Libya were severed in 1985 after Libya expelled some 30,000 Tunisian workers. Later in the year an Israeli air raid demolished the headquarters of the PLO near Tunis. The growth of Islamic fundamentalism in Tunisia, and several terrorist attacks on tourist resorts, led to large numbers of arrests, and the breaking of diplomatic links with Iran, which was accused of plotting to overthrow the president, in 1987.

In November 1987, following a period of inconsistent behaviour, Bourguiba was declared medically unfit to govern, and Prime Minister Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presidency. While retaining the secret police, Ben Ali freed political prisoners, legalized most opposition parties, and eased restrictions on the press. Although several parties contested the April 1989 elections (Tunisia’s first free elections since 1956), Ben Ali’s Constitutional Democratic Assembly (RCD; the renamed Destour Socialist Party) won all 141 seats in parliament, and he was elected to the presidency unopposed.

In the early 1990s Ben Ali imposed a severe crackdown on Muslim fundamentalists. During 1993 Tunisia attempted to mediate between Libya and Western states over the demands for extradition of Libyan suspects wanted in connection with the destruction of an American airliner over Lockerbie in Scotland. Ben Ali also expressed support for the government of Algeria against its domestic fundamentalist insurrection. In the March 1994 presidential and legislative elections Ben Ali and his party were returned overwhelmingly; however, opposition parties gained seats in the legislature for the first time.

The Middle East peace accords between Israel and the PLO in 1994 were welcomed by Tunisia, which moved to set up liaison offices in Tel Aviv and the Gaza Strip. Ben Ali reshuffled his Cabinet in January 1995, in an apparent effort to introduce more technocratic and pragmatic economic management. An incident on the border with Algeria in February, in which six Tunisian border guards were killed, was described in French newspapers as a deliberate attack by Algerian fundamentalists as part of a new fundamentalist policy of reprisal against Ben Ali’s support for Algeria’s rulers.

The RCD gained control of all municipal councils in local elections in May 1995, with opposition parties winning just six seats. The arrest in October of the opposition leader Muhammad Mouada, of the Movement of Democratic Socialists (MDS), accused of links with Libya, and subsequent arrest of Khemais Chamari, an MDS member of the National Assembly, on charges related to Mouada’s trial, caused international concern over deteriorating human rights in the country. Chamari had earlier been prevented from attending a conference on human rights. In January 1997 Mouada was released from prison on parole.

The easing of the enmity with Israel was halted following the election in Israel in May 1996 of a new hard-line right-wing government under Binyamin Netanyahu, while links were strengthened with the Gulf states, particularly Kuwait.

The government accelerated its privatization programme of 50 major companies in May 1998, in an effort to obtain increased aid from the European Union (EU). In the first contested presidential election in October 1999, President Ben Ali was elected to a third five-year term with over 99 per cent of the vote, and his party, the RCD, swept to victory in the concurrent legislative elections, taking 148 seats in the recently expanded 182-seat National Assembly. The remaining 34 seats are reserved for opposition parties and were split among 5 parties.

In April 2000, Tunisia mourned the death of the “father of the nation”, Habib Bourguiba, who died at the age of 96. Concerns about human rights breaches and corruption resurfaced shortly after with the sacking of a prominent activist who criticized the government overseas. In October, Tunisia cut diplomatic ties with Israel following Israeli violence against Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Ben Ali’s Arab nationalist stance was reaffirmed in February 2001 when Tunisia agreed a proposed free trade pact with Iraq. The ruling RCD called upon President Ben Ali to stand again as president, to which end a referendum was held in May 2002 on the abolition of the three-term limit on incumbent presidents. The overwhelming support for the amendment opened the way for Ben Ali to serve a further term as president, despite his initial opposition to such a change on his accession to the office in 1987. He duly won the October 2004 election by taking more than 94 per cent of the vote.

In April 2002 a suicide bomb attack at a synagogue on the island of Jarbah killed 19 people. A spokesman for the terrorist network Al-Qaeda later confirmed the organization’s responsibility for the incident. In parliamentary elections held in October 2004, 152 of the 189 seats were taken by the RCD.