I.

Introduction

Morocco (in Arabic, Al Mamlakah al Maghribiyah), hereditary monarchy, bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east and south-east by Algeria, on the south by Western Sahara, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The south-eastern boundary, in the Sahara Desert, is not precisely defined. Within Morocco are the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, on the Mediterranean coast. Several small islands off the northern coast of Morocco are also possessions of Spain. From 1912 to 1956 Morocco itself was divided into French and Spanish protectorates. The area of Morocco is 453,730 sq km (175,186 sq mi). Since 1979, Morocco has also occupied the adjacent region known as Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara). Rabat is the capital of Morocco.

II.

Land and Resources

Morocco has the broadest plains and the highest mountains in North Africa. The country has four main physiographic regions: an area of highlands, called Er Rif, paralleling the Mediterranean coast; the Atlas Mountains, extending across the country in a south-western to north-eastern direction between the Atlantic Ocean and Er Rif, from which the mountains are separated by the Taza Depression; a region of broad coastal plains along the Atlantic Ocean, framed in the arc formed by Er Rif and the Atlas Mountains; and the plains and valleys south of the Atlas Mountains, which merge with the Sahara along the south-eastern borders of the country. Most Moroccans inhabit the Atlantic coastal plain. The highest mountain is Toubkal (4,165 m/13,665 ft), in the Grand Atlas range. Elevations in Er Rif attain heights of about 2,440 m (8,000 ft).

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Morocco has many rivers, which, although unimportant for navigation, are used for irrigation and for generating electric power. The chief rivers are the Moulouya, which drains into the Mediterranean Sea, and the Sebou, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

B.

Climate

Along the Mediterranean coast, Morocco has a subtropical climate, tempered by oceanic influences that give the coastal cities moderate temperatures. At Essaouira (Mogador), for example, temperatures average 16.4° C (61.5° F) in January and 22.5° C (72.5° F) in August. Towards the interior, winters are colder and summers warmer. Thus, in Fès the mean temperature is 10° C (50° F) in January and 26.9° C (80.5° F) in August. At high altitudes temperatures of below -17.8° C (0° F) are not uncommon, and mountain peaks are covered with snow for most of the year. Rain falls mainly during the winter months. Precipitation is heaviest in the north-west and lightest in the east and south. The average annual precipitation is about 955 mm (37y in) in Tangier, 430 mm (17 in) in Casablanca, 280 mm (11 in) in Essaouira, and less than 102 mm (4 in) in the Sahara.

C.

Natural Resources

Morocco’s resources are primarily agricultural, but mineral resources are also significant. Among the latter the most important is phosphate rock, of which Morocco has 75 per cent of world reserves; other minerals include coal, cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, petroleum, silver, tin, and zinc.

The soils along the coast of Morocco are halomorphic and humus-carbonate; inland areas have podzolic and steppe soils. The southern part of the country is mainly desert.

D.

Plants and Animals

The mountainous regions of Morocco contain extensive areas of forest, including large stands of cork oak, evergreen oak, juniper, cedar, fir, and pine. Except for areas under cultivation, the plains are usually covered with scrub brush and alfalfa grass. On the plain of Sous, near the southern border, is a large forest of argan, a kind of thorny tree found principally in Morocco.

Moroccan wildlife represents a mingling of European and African species. Of the animals characteristic of Europe, the fox, rabbit, otter, and squirrel abound; of predominantly African types, the gazelle, wild boar, panther, baboon, wild goat, and horned viper are common.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Population pressures are leading to soil erosion and desertification, as marginal lands are farmed and ground cover is destroyed by overgrazing. Morocco has a low rate of deforestation relative to other African countries, however, with only 0.3 per cent (1990-1996) of its forests destroyed each year. Forests cover 8.6 per cent (1995) of the country's area.

Morocco irrigates 2.8 per cent of its land (1997)—one of the highest percentages in Africa. The country uses more than 90 per cent of its fresh water for agricultural production. Available drinking water has been further limited by pollution of freshwater sources with raw sewage and industrial waste. Periodic droughts contribute to water shortages in some areas of the country, and the problem of water scarcity is expected to worsen as Morocco's population continues to grow.

Reserves and national parks cover 0.7 per cent of Morocco's total land area (1997). The country is home to 39 threatened animal species. The government has ratified international agreements protecting biodiversity, endangered species, wetlands, and the ozone layer. The country has also signed treaties limiting hazardous waste, marine dumping, and nuclear testing. Morocco is party to the World Heritage Convention and participates in the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Man and the Biosphere Program.

III.

Population

The original population of Morocco was Berber, and about three quarters of all present-day Moroccans are of Berber descent. Arabs, who constitute the bulk of the inhabitants of the larger cities, form the second-largest ethnic group. Considerable intermarriage among Arabs, Berbers, and the country’s small number of black Africans has broken down differences among ethnic groups. Morocco has about 100,000 European inhabitants, most of them French. The approximately 12,000 Jews stem mainly from families that have inhabited the area for centuries. The population is more or less evenly balanced between urban and rural dwellers.

A.

Population Characteristics

Morocco has a population of 33,757,175 (2007 estimate), including the disputed territory of Western Sahara (population, 1994 census, 252,146). The country’s overall population density is about 76 people per sq km (196 per sq mi).

B.

Political Divisions

Morocco is divided into 16 economic regions. Of these 13 are in Morocco, 2 are in Moroccan-administered Western Sahara, and 1 (Guelmin-Smara) straddles Western Sahara and Morocco. There are also an undetermined number of provinces.

C.

Principal Cities

The capital of Morocco is Rabat, with a population of 1,622,860 (2004). Other major urban centres, with their populations, are Casablanca, 2,933,684 (2004), the country’s largest city and main seaport; Marrakesh, 823,154 (2004), and Fès, 946,815 (2004), both important trade centres; and Tangier, 669,685 (2004), a seaport on a bay of the Strait of Gibraltar.

D.

Religion

Islam is the established state religion of Morocco. Almost the entire population is Sunni Muslim. The monarch is the supreme Muslim authority in the country. About 1 per cent of the population is Christian, and less than 0.1 per cent is Jewish.

E.

Language

Standard Arabic is the official language, although it is not a mother tongue as it is used only in official domains, including education and business. Moroccan Spoken Arabic is the most widely used language, with at least 18.8 million mother-tongue speakers alone. Other forms of Arabic (Hasanya and Judaeo-Moroccan) are also heard. Three Berber languages are spoken: Tachelhit (3 million), Central Atlas Tamazight (3 million), and Tarifit (1.5 million). However, Berber languages, once dominant throughout Morocco, have declined in importance. French and Spanish are spoken as second languages by some Moroccans.

F.

Education

In 1963 schooling became compulsory in Morocco for children between the ages of 7 and 13, but significantly fewer girls than boys attend classes, and only around 45 per cent of secondary-school-age Moroccans actually attend secondary school. Arabic is the main language of instruction, and French is also used in secondary schools. In 2005 around 53 per cent of the population was literate. In 2000, about 3.84 million pupils attended some 5,806 primary schools, and 1.47 million students were enrolled in secondary schools.

University education is provided at the Ibn Zohr University (1989) at Agadir; Hassan II University Aïn Chock (1975) at Casablanca; University Chouaïb Doukkali (1989) at El Jadida; al-Quaraouiyine University (859) and Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University (1974) at Fès; al-Akhawayn University (1995) at Ifrane; Ibn Tofail University (1989) at Kenitra; Cadi Ayyad University (1978), at Marrakesh; Moulay Ismail University (1981) at Meknès; Hassan II University (1992) at Mohammedia; Mohammed I University (1978) at Oujda; Mohammed V Agdal University (1957) and Mohammed V Souissi University (1992) at Rabat; Hassan I University at Settat; and Abdelmalek Essaâdi University at Tétouan (1989). Rabat also has colleges of fine arts, public administration, agriculture, and economics, and the School of Native Arts and Crafts (1921) is in Tétouan. Some 266,000 students were enrolled in higher education in 1994-1995. In 2002–2003, 6.6 per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

G.

Culture

Morocco has felt the influences of several ancient cultures. Excavations have unearthed elements of the Phoenician, Hellenic, Carthaginian, and Roman civilizations. Christianity spread to this region in Roman times and survived the Arab invasion, but Arabic influences, which began in the 7th century, were to prove the strongest. The Arabs brought to Morocco a written language that is still the primary language of business and culture. The western African influence, seen in dances, spread northwards with trade. Among more recent influences, the strongest is that of France.

The Moroccan national library, which was founded in 1920, is located at Rabat. Other libraries in the country include the Library of Casablanca and the University library at Fès. Morocco has a number of major museums, one of which, the Archaeological Museum in Tetouan, has collections of Carthaginian, Roman, and Islamic art and artefacts.

IV.

Economy

Morocco is primarily an agricultural country, although no more than about 21 per cent of the land is cultivated. In 2004 the GNP (World Bank figure) was estimated at US$46,936 million, or about US$1,740 per person. The estimated budget in 2005 included revenues of about US$16,160 million and expenditures of about US$14,856 million. Morocco has low inflation and a growing tourist industry. There is, however, a high rate of population growth and unemployment, and agriculture is regularly affected by drought. A privatization programme begun by the government in 1992 has met with opposition from trade unions. Inward investment by foreign companies has been encouraged.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

The principal crops of Morocco, with their production in tonnes in 2005, are sugar beet (4,560,000) and sugar cane (992,000); cereals, especially wheat (3,043,000) and barley (2,500,000); and potatoes (1,440,000). Many other fruit and vegetables are also grown. Livestock included about 17 million sheep, 5.36 million goats, and 2.73 million head of cattle in 2005.

Cork is a major forest product of Morocco. Much timber is cut for use as fuel; total roundwood yields in 2005 were 0.96 million cu m (33.8 million cu ft). The chief fishing centres are Agadir, Safi, Essaouira, and Casablanca. The catch in 2004 was some 896,326 tonnes, including pilchard, tuna, mackerel, anchovies, and shellfish.

B.

Mining

Morocco is a leading producer of phosphate rock; output was about 8.50 million tonnes in 2004. Other minerals produced were coal (52,000 tonnes), iron ore (2,200), lead (65,000), and zinc (70,000).

C.

Manufacturing

Morocco’s manufacturing sector is made up mostly of small-scale enterprises. Construction materials, chemicals, textiles, footwear, processed food, wine, refined petroleum, and many other kinds of goods are produced in Morocco. Artisans produce fabrics, leather goods, ceramics, carpets and rugs, and woodwork of high quality. Production in 1993 included about 900,000 sq m (1.1 million sq yd) of carpets and rugs and 997,000 tonnes of phosphate fertilizers.

D.

Energy

Around 94 per cent of Morocco’s annual production of electricity is generated in thermal plants, and the remainder is produced in hydroelectric facilities. Morocco has an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 2.6 million kW. Output of electricity in 2003 was about 17.3 billion kWh.

E.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Morocco is the Moroccan dirham of 100 francs (8.64 dirhams equalled US$1; early 2007). It is issued by the Banque al-Maghrib (1959), the state bank. The country also has several large private banks.

F.

Commerce and Trade

Morocco’s leading exports are phosphates and phosphoric acid. Other exports include citrus fruit, wheat, fish, and minerals. Exports in 2003 earned around US$8,777 million. Imports, consisting mainly of industrial equipment, food products, manufactured goods, and fuels, were valued at US$14,231 million. The principal trade partners of Morocco are France, Germany, Spain, Italy, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates. Morocco gains much foreign exchange from remittances by Moroccans working abroad and from the expenditures of the 3.5 million tourists who visit the country each year.

G.

Labour

Morocco’s workforce in 2005 included some 11.1 million people. Approximately 34 per cent of the labour force was engaged in agriculture, about 8 per cent worked in services, and some 24 per cent was employed in industry. Only a small percentage of the total workforce is organized; the leading trade unions are the Union Marocaine du Travail and the Union Générale des Travailleurs du Maroc.

H.

Transport

Morocco has extensive port facilities, concentrated principally at Casablanca. Other ports include Agadir, Kenitra, Mohammedia, Safi, and Tangier. The country has some 1,907 km (1,185 mi) of railway track and about 57,694 km (35,849 mi) of roads, some 56 per cent of which were hard-surfaced. Morocco had about 45 passenger cars per 1,000 people in 2002. Domestic and international air service is provided by Royal Air Maroc; several major foreign airlines also serve Morocco. Mohammed V International Airport at Casablanca is the country’s major airport. Menara Airport at Marrakesh and Al Massira at Agadir are also important points of arrival and departure.

I.

Communications

There were around 45 telephones per 1,000 people in use in Morocco in 2005. Radio and television programmes are broadcast in several languages, and about 7 million radios and 5 million television receivers were in use in 2000. The country has 23 daily newspapers and numerous periodicals.

V.

Government

Morocco is a hereditary monarchy, governed under a constitution of 1992, approved in a national referendum.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The monarch, who, according to the constitution, must be male, is the head of state of Morocco. He appoints the prime minister and Cabinet. He also has the power to call for a reconsideration of legislative measures and to dissolve the legislature. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the country’s armed forces.

Under the constitution of 1972, Morocco has a unicameral legislature called the Chamber of Representatives. Its 325 members serve five-year terms. Deputies for 295 seats are chosen by direct universal adult suffrage; deputies for the remaining 30 seats are chosen from national lists reserved for women. A referendum in 1996 established a Chamber of Councillors with 270 members, each elected for a nine-year term: 162 are elected by local councils, 81 by chambers of commerce, and 27 by trade unions. The voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 2003.

B.

Political Parties

Morocco has a multi-party political system. The major organizations are the Istiqlal (I)/Parti d’Independence, a moderate grouping founded in 1944; the Popular Movement (MP), a conservative organization established in 1959; the National Popular Movement (MNP), formed in 1991 after a split in the MP; the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP); the pro-monarchy National Rally of Independents (RNI), founded in 1978; the Constitutional Union (UC), organized in 1983; the National Democratic Party (PND), founded in 1981; and the Party of Progress and Socialism (PPS), formerly the Party for Liberty and Socialism but renamed in 1994. In 2001 two new parties were formed: the Party of Reform and Development (PRD) and the Citizens’ Forces (FC). The voting age was lowered from 20 to 18 years of age in December 2002. At the 2002 elections no party won an overall majority. The following groupings were strongly represented in the legislature: USFP; I; the Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD); RNI; MP; MNP; and UC.

C.

Judiciary

The highest tribunal in Morocco is the supreme court, which sits in Rabat. The country also has 15 courts of appeal. Cases involving small sums of money are heard by local tribunals, and more important cases are initiated in regional tribunals. In addition, the country has 14 labour tribunals.

D.

Local Government

Morocco’s provinces are administered by governors who are appointed by the king and serve at the pleasure of the central government. Each province is divided into cercles, which are subdivided into circonscriptions (constituencies).

E.

Health and Welfare

Health services are fairly well developed in Morocco’s cities, but health conditions in rural areas remain poor. The government provides for social security benefits. The country had some 2,070 people per doctor in 2004. Average life expectancy at birth in 2007 was 69 years for men and 74 years for women; the infant mortality rate was 39 deaths per 1,000 live births. Around 3.2 per cent of government expenditure was spent on health care in 1999.

F.

Defence

Military service of 18 months is compulsory for males in Morocco. The army numbered about 180,000 men, the air force about 13,000, and the navy about 7,800 in 2004. In 2003, Morocco spent US$1,826 million on defence.

G.

International Organizations

Morocco is a member of the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Arab League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).

VI.

History

The history of the region comprising present-day Morocco has been shaped by the interaction of the original Berber population and the various foreign peoples who successively invaded the country.

The first of the foreign invaders well known to history were the Phoenicians, who in the 12th century bc established trading posts on the Mediterranean coast of the region. These colonies were later taken over and extended by the Carthaginians. The conquest of Carthage by the Roman Empire, in the 2nd century bc, led to Roman dominance of the Mediterranean coast of Africa. About ad 42 the northern portion of what is now Morocco was incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Mauretania Tingitana. In the Germanic invasions that attended the decline of the Roman Empire, the Vandals in 429 occupied Mauretania Tingitana. The Byzantine general Belisarius defeated the Vandals in 533 and established the rule of the Byzantine Empire in parts of the country.

A.

Muslim Conquest

Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Morocco in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam. Except for the Jews, the inhabitants of Morocco, both Christian and pagan, soon accepted the religion of their conquerors. Berber troops were used extensively by the Arabs in their subsequent subjugation of Spain.

The first Arab rulers of the whole of Morocco, the Idrisid dynasty, held power from 789 to 926. The Idrisids were succeeded by other dynasties, both Arab and Berber. Among the most notable were the dynasties of the Almoravids, from 1062 to 1147, and the Almohads, from 1147 to 1258. Under the latter, Morocco became the centre of an empire that embraced modern-day Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and large areas of Spain and Portugal.

The Almohad Empire began to disintegrate after the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, in which the Spanish defeated the Moroccans. By mid-century its power was gone. A period of disorder and almost incessant civil war between Berbers and Arabs followed. Rulers of various dynasties reigned briefly and ineffectually over parts of the country. In 1415 Portugal captured the port of Ceuta. This intrusion initiated a period of gradual extension of Portuguese and Spanish power over the Moroccan coastal region.

Morocco experienced a revival under the Saadians, known as the first Sharifian dynasty (1554-1660). The Moroccans inflicted a severe defeat on the Portuguese in 1578, and by the end of the 17th century they had regained control of most of their coastal cities. The reign (1579-1603) of Ahmed I al-Man-sur is regarded as the golden age of Morocco. The country benefited enormously from the influx of nearly a million Moors and Jews who were expelled from Spain after 1492. It was unified and relatively prosperous; its native arts and architecture flourished.

The Saadians were succeeded by the second Sharifian dynasty, who have ruled since 1660. This dynasty reached its peak in the reign of Ismail al-Hasani (reigned 1672-1727). Al-Hasani’s reign was followed by a long period of disorder, which was punctuated with brief interludes of relative peace and prosperity.

B.

European Dominance

In the 18th and early 19th centuries pirates from Morocco and other so-called Barbary coast states of North Africa preyed on the shipping that plied the Mediterranean Sea. Because of the depredations of the Barbary pirates and because Morocco shared control of the Strait of Gibraltar with Spain, the country featured with increasing prominence in the diplomacy of the European maritime powers, particularly Spain, Great Britain, and France. Spain invaded Morocco in 1859-1860 and acquired Tetouan.

In April 1904, in return for receiving a free hand in Egypt from France, Great Britain recognized Morocco as a French sphere of interest. Later that year France and Spain divided Morocco into zones of influence, with Spain receiving the much smaller part as a sub-lessee of France. Imperial Germany soon disputed these arrangements, and a conference of major powers, including the United States, met in Algeciras, Spain, in January 1906 to conclude an agreement. The resultant Act of Algeciras guaranteed equality of economic rights for every nation in Morocco.

In July 1911 the Germans sent a gunboat to the Moroccan port city of Agadir, in a move designed to encourage native resistance to French dominance. This incident provoked French mobilization and brought Europe to the brink of war, but in later negotiations Germany agreed to a French protectorate over Morocco in return for French territorial concessions elsewhere in Africa.

In March 1912 the sultan recognized the protectorate. Later that year the French, under a revision of the 1904 convention with Spain, obtained a larger share of Moroccan territory.

C.

Fight for Independence

The Spanish experienced even greater difficulties in Spanish Morocco. Abd-el-Krim, a leader of Rif tribes, organized a revolt against Spanish rule in 1920. By 1924 he had driven the Spanish forces from most of their Moroccan territory. He then turned upon the French. France and Spain agreed in 1925 to cooperate against Abd-el-Krim. More than 200,000 troops under the French Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain were used in the campaign, which ended victoriously in 1926. The country was not fully pacified, however, until the end of 1934.

Following Germany’s defeat of France in 1940, the collaborationist government of Vichy France allowed Morocco to support the German war effort. In November 1942 American troops landed and occupied Morocco. During the rest of World War II, the country was a major Allied supply base. Casablanca was the site of a meeting of the heads of government of the Allies in 1943.

In 1944 Moroccan nationalists formed the Istiqlal Party, which soon won the support of Sultan Muhammad V and the majority of Arabs. It was opposed by most of the Berber tribes, however. The French rejected the plea by the sultan in 1950 for self-government. The sultan was deposed in August 1953, but in October 1955 the French permitted him to return to the throne.

D.

Unification

The French recognized Moroccan independence in March 1956. In April the Spanish government recognized in principle the independence of Spanish Morocco and the unity of the sultanate, although it retained certain cities and territories. Tangier was incorporated into Morocco in October 1956. Ifni was returned to Morocco in January 1969.

Sultan Muhammad V assumed the title of king in August 1957. At his death in 1961, the throne passed to his son Hassan II. A royal charter was implemented by Hassan, whereby a constitutional monarchy was established on the approval by referendum of a constitution in December 1962. The nation’s first general elections were held in 1963. In June 1965, however, the king temporarily suspended parliament and assumed full executive and legislative power, serving as his own prime minister for two years. Hassan gave strong support to the Arab cause in the 1967 Six-Day War with Israel and made subsequent attempts to secure Arab unity. Nevertheless, he was deemed too moderate by extremist elements, and attempts were made on his life in 1971 and 1972.

E.

Saharan War

During 1974-1975 Morocco exerted much pressure on Spain to relinquish the Spanish Sahara. When the Spanish left, in 1976, they ceded the northern two thirds of the colony to Morocco, while Mauritania received the southern third. This disposal of the phosphate-rich territory was disputed by the Polisario Front, a Saharan nationalist movement, which sought to bring about the establishment of the independent nation of Western Sahara. Although burdened by the ensuing guerrilla warfare, Morocco annexed the whole region when Mauritania decided to withdraw from the conflict and surrender its portion in 1979.

Faced with mounting international opposition, King Hassan nevertheless committed additional troops and resources to the effort to protect the phosphate mines and major towns from Polisario harassment. In 1984 Morocco left the Organization of African Unity to protest against its seating of a Polisario delegation. Efforts by the UN to mediate the dispute continued throughout the 1980s and early 1990s; a 1988 peace plan collapsed over disagreement on terms for a referendum on Western Sahara’s future.

F.

The Gulf War and After

Morocco sent troops in 1990 to protect Saudi Arabia against Iraq’s troop build-up in Kuwait, but Moroccan forces had no direct role in the Gulf War. Western Saharan constituencies were included in the 1992 local elections, which followed King Hassan’s promulgation of a new constitution, overwhelmingly approved by referendum in September; the 1993 legislative elections gave the greatest share of the poll to a coalition of the centre-right parties. Neither wing of the political spectrum proved able to form a government, and in November 1993 King Hassan appointed a Cabinet of technocrats and independents. He replaced this with a partially elected Cabinet in February 1995, including some representatives of the majority right-wing parties.

In September 1996 a referendum approved the king’s plans for a new legislative upper house, composed of indirectly elected representatives of local government and the professions, by over 99 per cent; outside observers expressed scepticism at the high figure, but opposition parties welcomed the result. Legislative elections held in November 1997 saw the Socialist Union of Popular Force win 13.9 per cent of seats, followed closely by the Independence Party, with 13.2 per cent.

As Morocco produces 30 per cent of Europe’s supply of cannabis, in 1996 a major campaign against drug smuggling was launched in response to foreign criticism. The campaign aroused opposition from importers and criticism from others concerned about human rights. While Islamic militant groups are illegal in Morocco, Islamic fundamentalism is on the increase, mainly as a reaction to the country’s pro-Western stance.

In February 1998 Abderrahmane El Youssoufi was appointed prime minister by King Hassan II, and a new government was formed in March. Pledges on human rights, a solution to the Western Sahara issue, and reiteration of territorial claims to the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla were among policy objectives he outlined in an address to the legislature in April. In May measures were taken which seemed to indicate progress in human rights, when a passport was granted to a Jewish dissident and house arrest of the leader of a pro-Islamist group was lifted. An additional aid package was agreed between Morocco and France in October.

G.

A New Ruler

King Hassan II, who had ruled the country since 1961, died in July 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Sidi Mohammed, who took the name Mohammed VI. In early 2000 the king instigated a campaign for Morocco to join the European Union (EU).

Talks held in mid-2000 in London to try to resolve the Western Sahara situation were unsuccessful. Neither Morocco nor the Polisario were able to agree the terms of a referendum to establish ownership, and in early 2001 there were rumblings that the UN-monitored ceasefire maintained between the two sides since 1991 might be under threat. A further dispute, this time over the tiny island of Leila (Perejil) 200 m (650 ft) off the Moroccan coast, took place in July 2002 when Moroccan troops took over the island. They were quickly repulsed by Spanish forces since Spain also claims sovereignty over the island. US Secretary of State Colin Powell brokered a deal by which both Morocco and Spain agreed to remove permanent encampments from the 1 km (0.5 mi) long island. In December 2002 both sides met for talks but failed to resume normal diplomatic relations.

In elections held for the Chamber of Representatives in September 2002 the USFP won 50 seats, closely followed by the Istiqlal with 48. Twenty-two other parties won seats in the election. On October 9 the king appointed Driss Jettou as prime minister but it was not until early November that a government was formed, pretty much along the same political lines as the previous administration, with USFP and Istiqlal sharing power. Despite a strong showing in the polls, none of the representatives of the Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) acquired a Cabinet post.

In February 2003 a court in Casablanca convicted three Saudi Al-Qaeda operatives of plotting a terrorist attack on US and British naval vessels in the Strait of Gibraltar. Five simultaneous suicide bomb attacks killed at least 41 people and left more than 100 others injured in Casablanca in May 2003; in August, a Moroccan court found four suspects guilty of involvement in the attack, and sentenced them to death.

A powerful earthquake near the north-eastern port city of Al Hoceïma claimed the lives of more than 500 people in February 2004.