I.

Introduction

Special Forces, highly trained forces within the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the United States specializing in unconventional warfare. They were originally trained in the 1940s to infiltrate enemy-controlled territory and to contact and organize local dissidents for guerrilla operations during World War II. Today, these forces are noted for their role in counter-insurgency and anti-terrorist operations.

II.

History

By the end of World War II, British and United States special forces had expanded to a remarkable degree. The vast expanse over which the war was fought, the long coastlines in many theatres, and terrain such as desert, mountain, and jungle offered many opportunities for the use of such units. The advent of reliable, portable radios, and long-range aircraft, enabled special forces teams to be inserted into enemy territory, controlled, and resupplied, then to pass back information and be extracted from hitherto unprecedented distances.

After the fall of France in 1940, the British began raising commandos for raids on the enemy-held coastline. Soon, other organizations were formed to cater for specific needs in the various theatres of war. In North Africa, the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) used the vast space afforded by the Libyan Desert to reconnoitre and attack the German and Italian lines of communication on the one coast road. The LRDG also operated in Italy and the Balkans from 1943 onwards, mainly for reconnaissance (military survey of an area to obtain information about enemy positions). The Special Air Service (SAS) was originally formed to attack Axis airfields in North Africa, but went on to operate in Italy and north-west Europe mainly in support of partisans.

III.

SBS and SAS

The Special Boat Section, and the Special Boat Squadron, confusingly both called the SBS (although they were separate organizations), used canoes and other small boats to conduct reconnaissance, attack targets near the coast, and provide navigational guidance to major beach landings. The Royal Marine Boom Patrol Detachment (RMBPD) was a cover name for an organization trained to use canoes and limpet mines to attack enemy shipping in harbour. Combined Operations Assault Pilotage Parties (COAPPs) were responsible for clandestine beach surveys in many British-fought theatres of war. All of these units used submarines, fast patrol boats, and fishing vessels to transport them—and their canoes or craft—to and from their operating area.

The SAS today is the lineal descendant of its World War II namesake and has also taken on the role of the LRDG. There are three SAS regiments: one regular, and two reserve; their motto is “Who Dares Wins”. The Special Boat Service (SBS) has assumed the tasks of both World War II SBS organizations, the RMBPD, and the COAPPs. The SBS, whose motto is “Not by Strength, by Guile”, is now part of the Royal Marines. Both organizations are controlled by one Special Forces headquarters reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence. In 2006 an additional unit, the Special Forces Support Group (SFSG), was created to both further support special forces and strengthen anti-terrorist operations.

Since World War II the SAS and SBS have taken part in numerous operations in many parts of the world—either in conjunction with main force activities or independently. These have included deep jungle reconnaissance; assistance to local forces; operations against terrorists and guerrillas; long-range penetration patrols; attacks on high-value targets; clandestine beach reconnaissance and surveys; and training of foreign forces. The SAS operation which launched it to public prominence was the siege and storming of the terrorist-occupied Iranian Embassy in London in May 1980. Insertion of special forces is by a variety of means, including helicopter, parachute, truck, canoe, fast inflatable craft, and on foot.

IV.

United States Special Forces

The United States first set up its special forces in 1942. The United States Marine Corps (USMC) formed Raider Battalions, while the Army raised Ranger Battalions. The Raiders took part in most of the USMC landings in the Pacific both as an advance force for the main landings and for independent operations on the flanks, or behind enemy lines. Army Rangers spearheaded amphibious assaults in the Mediterranean and north-west European theatres of operations. Perhaps the most notable of these was the assault on the Pointe du Hoc cliffs by the 2nd Ranger Battalion on June 6, 1944, as part of the Allied D-Day assault on Normandy. Rangers were also employed ahead of the main ground force in the land battle on numerous occasions: for reconnaissance, to seize key terrain, and to disrupt enemy lines of communication.

Today's Special Forces in the United States came into being in 1952. The Army's Special Forces are known as the Green Berets because of their distinctive headgear. The expansion of the Green Berets, most notably through their role in South East Asia during the 1960s and 1970s, reflected the increasing importance that was accorded guerrilla tactics to counter revolutionary and other political developments in the United States and elsewhere in the world. The present Rangers, still an elite formation in the United States Army, although not strictly speaking Special Forces, are sometimes treated as such—and given tasks accordingly.

The United States Navy special forces are known as sea-air-land-teams (SEALs). As the name implies, their activities are mainly, although not exclusively, connected with operations launched from, or taking place on or under, the sea. They are involved in clandestine reconnaissance, attacks on high-value targets, and anti-terrorist operations.

United States Special Forces have played their part in all the campaigns involving their country, including those in South East Asia, Grenada, Panama, the Gulf War, Somalia, Afghanistan, and the War on Iraq. The methods employed to introduce them into the target area are similar to those used by the British. Both countries have air crews trained to the demanding standard required to fly special missions. United States Special Forces have the additional advantage of specially assigned transport aircraft and helicopter squadrons, specifically modified to enable them to penetrate hostile air space with a greater chance of success.

In 1987, those Special Forces not deactivated after the Vietnam War were incorporated into the US Special Operations Command. In general terms the Green Berets are akin to the SAS, and the SEALs have many of the characteristics of the SBS. In common with their British counterparts, United States Special Forces personnel are all parachute-qualified. They are trained to infiltrate enemy-controlled territory and make contact with, and organize, local dissidents for guerrilla operations.

Special Forces are known for a strong esprit de corps and intensive cross-training; their schooling in more than one speciality enables them to cover for loss or injury to members of the combat team. Training includes rigorous physical conditioning, familiarity with foreign weapons, hand-to-hand combat, night fighting, and familiarity with differing types of terrain—jungle, mountains, desert, and urban areas. Medical training also plays an important part. One member of a typical four-man patrol is almost always a medic. He not only provides medical cover for the patrol but in certain circumstances will also provide treatment for the local population where appropriate; this can play an important part in winning their trust. It is likely that Special Forces will continue to play an important part in the future at all levels of conflict, from operations as peacekeeping forces to all-out fighting in a high-intensity war.