I.

Introduction

Niger (in French, République du Niger), officially Republic of Niger, landlocked republic, western Africa, bordered on the north by Algeria and Libya, on the east by Chad, on the south by Nigeria and Benin, and on the west by Burkina Faso and Mali. A former French colony, Niger achieved full independence on August 3, 1960. It has a total area of 1,267,000 sq km (489,200 sq mi). The capital of Niger is Niamey.

II.

Land and Resources

Niger is divided into three zones: the northern, the central, and the southern. The northern zone, covering more than half of the total area of the republic, lies within the Sahara. It is a highland region of plateaux and mountains and, except in scattered oases, has little vegetation. In this zone is Mount Bagzane (1,900 m/6,234 ft), the highest point in the country. The central zone, known as the Sahel, is semi-arid and lightly wooded. The southern zone is a fertile, forested area that benefits from adequate rainfall and, in the south-west, from the periodic overflow of the River Niger, virtually the only river in the country. On the south-east, the nation borders on one of the largest lakes of the continent, the shallow Lake Chad. Environmental problems persist due to desertification from overgrazing, recurring droughts, and deforestation.

A.

Climate

The climate of Niger is hot and, in most areas, dry. Rainfall, negligible in the north, increases to 560 mm (22 in) a year in the south, where a rainy season lasts from June to October. The average annual temperature at Niamey is 29.4° C (85° F).

B.

Natural Resources

Niger has diverse mineral resources, many of which remain to be exploited. Large deposits of high-grade uranium ore are mined in the north at Arlit and Akouta. Phosphates are mined in the Niger valley, and coal and tin ore deposits are also exploited. Salt is mined on a large scale. Other minerals include iron ore and copper. Diamonds and tungsten have also been found.

C.

Plants and Animals

The northern desert of Niger has little vegetation. In the south are extensive savannah grasslands and, in the lowlands, a variety of trees, including baobab, tamarind, kepok, and a species of mahogany. Animal life includes buffalo, antelopes, giraffes, and a few lions.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Niger is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world and the country's natural resources are under pressure from its rapidly increasing population. About 7 per cent (1991) of Niger's workforce is involved in agriculture, the majority practising subsistence farming. Soil erosion and desertification resulting from overgrazing and poor land management are reducing the productivity of the country's farmland. Burning wood and other traditional fuels accounts for 80 per cent of the country's energy consumption, and the need for firewood is contributing to deforestation. In 1995 the World Bank approved a US$26.7 million credit towards a management programme to reverse the deterioration of Niger's land and natural resources. Other programmes include promoting family planning in order to try to reduce the population growth rate.

Niger's poorly developed infrastructure contributes to the spread of infectious diseases. Only 61 per cent (1990-1998 estimate) of Niger's population has access to safe water, and only 19 per cent (1990-1998 estimate) of the population is serviced by adequate sewage systems. About 7.7 per cent (1997) of Niger's land is officially protected. Although Niger has banned hunting throughout the country, rampant poaching seriously threatens wildlife populations. Niger has ratified international treaties protecting biodiversity, endangered species, wetlands, and the ozone layer. The country has also signed treaties that limit nuclear weapons testing, chemical and biological weapons, and hazardous waste. Niger is party to the World Heritage Convention, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program, and the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Reserves. It has also signed the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

III.

Population

There are six main ethnic groups in Niger. The largest is the Hausa (56 per cent), who are subsistence farmers in the south. The Songhai and Djerma make up 22 per cent of the population; the Fulani and the Tuareg, 8 per cent each; and the Beriberi-Manga, 4 per cent. The Fulani and Tuareg are pastoralists, following a nomadic, or semi-nomadic lifestyle.

A.

Population Characteristics

Niger has a population of 13,272,679 (2008 estimate). The average population density is only 11 people per sq km (27 per sq mi), but approximately 90 per cent of the population lives near the southern border. About 23 per cent of the population is urbanized. Life expectancy at birth is 44 years for men, 44 years for women.

B.

Political Divisions

Niger is divided into eight departments, which are subdivided into districts and communes.

C.

Principal Cities

Niamey, the main port and largest city, as well as the capital, has a population of 890,000 (2003 estimate). Zinder, population 120,900 (1988), Maradi, 113,000 (1988), and Tahoua, 51,600 (1988 estimate), are the other principal towns.

D.

Religion

About 95 per cent of the people of Niger are Sunni Muslims. Most of the remainder adhere to traditional beliefs, and a small Christian minority also exists.

E.

Language

French is the official language, but it has only around 6,000 mother-tongue speakers. The national languages are recognized as Arabic (Semitic language family); Fulfulde and Gourmanchéma (Niger-Congo); Hausa (Afro-Asiatic); Kanuri, Tubu, and Zarma (Nilo-Saharan); and Tamajaq (Berber). Hausa is the most widely spoken language in Niger, with 5 million first-language speakers and another 25 per cent of the population speaking it as a second language. Zarma has 2.1 million mother-tongue speakers.

F.

Education

Schooling in Niger is free and compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15. Because of a shortage of teachers and the wide dispersion of the population, however, only about 40 per cent of primary-school-age children receive an education. The adult literacy rate is as low as 19 per cent. In 1994, 3 per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education. In 2000 some 656,589 pupils attended primary schools in any one year, and about 108,033 students were enrolled in secondary schools. Students in vocational and teacher-training schools numbered about 2,100. There are around 4,000 students at the University Abdou Moumouni in Niamey (1971); the county’s other major university is the Islamic University of Niger (1984).

G.

Culture

Islamic influences, originating from North Africa, have had a powerful effect on the culture of Niger. Municipalities in Niger have state-run libraries, and several private organizations maintain libraries. The National Museum of Niger, in Niamey, includes both a library and a museum.

IV.

Economy

Niger’s GNP in 2004 was about US$2,836 million (World Bank estimate), equivalent to about US$270 per capita. Niger is one of the world’s poorest countries, with recent growth in gross domestic product (GDP) barely matching the growth of population. The great majority of the people of Niger are subsistence farmers or pastoralists. In spite of the general aridity of the country, agriculture provides most of the national income. Agriculture was affected by the disastrous Sahel drought of the 1970s, and by less severe drought during the 1980s. Uranium was the major export throughout the 1970s and 1980s, but revenues dropped by almost 50 per cent between 1983 and 1990 with the decline in demand for uranium. Manufacturing enterprises are mostly very small. In 1993 the estimated annual budget included US$188 million in revenue and US$400 million in expenditure.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Livestock-raising is the principal agricultural activity. In 2006 the annual livestock population included about 7.70 million goats, 4.90 million sheep, 2.43 million cattle, 580,000 donkeys, 439,000 camels, and 106,000 horses. Peanuts are a major export crop. Millet, sorghum, cassava, beans, and rice are grown for local consumption. Some 40,000 hectares (98,840 acres) of the 2.7 million hectares (6.67 million acres) of arable land are irrigated. Annual production in 2006 included, in tonnes, millet (3.20 million), sorghum (800,000), cassava (127,419), sugar cane (220,000), and peanuts (139,304).

Fishing is carried out on Lake Chad and on the Niger, and the catch is consumed locally. In 2005 the catch was about 50,058 tonnes.

B.

Mining and Manufacturing

In the west-central part of Niger, salt and natron are mined today as they have been for centuries. Tin ore is also found in this region. Uranium deposits are still mined in northern Niger. Reserves are estimated at more than 100,000 tonnes, and approximately 2,100 tonnes of concentrate were produced in 1994 making Niger one of the world’s main producers. Production of coal was about 176,000 tonnes in 2003. Industry is limited mainly to food processing and construction.

C.

Currency and Banking

Niger is a member of the Franc Zone and the monetary unit is the CFA franc (449.18 CFA francs equalled US$1; early 2008). It is issued by the central bank of the states of the West African currency region of the Franc Zone, based in Dakar, Senegal. In January 1994 the CFA franc was devalued by 50 per cent against its fixed exchange rate with the French franc, thereby improving trade with Nigeria. Several commercial and development banks operate in the country.

D.

Commerce and Trade

In 2003 Niger annually exported goods amounting to some US$209 million, with uranium accounting for the bulk of the value. Imports totalled about US$558 million. Major trading partners include France, Nigeria, Japan, the United States, and Côte d’Ivoire.

E.

Transport

Niger has some 14,565 km (9,050 mi) of roads, of which about 25 per cent are paved. In 1997 the country had 4 passenger cars per 1,000 people. An international airport serves Niamey; the country has about 30 smaller airfields, including those at Agadez, Zinder, and Maradi. Niger is a participating member of Air Afrique. Seagoing vessels can reach Niamey, along the Niger, between March and September.

F.

Communications

Government-controlled radio and television services broadcast in several languages to an estimated (2000) 1,306,000 radios and 395,380 television sets. The daily newspaper is Le Sahel (circulation 5,000), published in Niamey.

V.

Government

Until the military coup of April 15, 1974, Niger was governed under a 1960 constitution. Subsequently, the Supreme Military Council, headed by a president, became the nation’s main governing body. A new constitution approved by referendum in September 1989 nominally returned the country to civilian rule. In 1991 this constitution was suspended and a transitional government established which set up a new constitution approved by referendum in December 1992 (revised again 1996 and 1999). It provided for a multi-party democracy, with a directly elected president who would serve a five-year term, renewable once. The directly elected 113-member National Assembly has a maximum five-year term.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The 1989 constitution called for Niger to be governed by a president, directly elected for a seven-year term, and by a directly elected National Assembly. The National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) was the sole legal political party. A constitutional conference, convened in 1991, stripped the president of his powers and established a transitional legislative body, the High Council of the Republic. Under the 1992 constitution the president appointed the prime minister from the largest parliamentary party, with the prime minister and Cabinet as the executive body.

After the January 1996 coup the government and assembly were dissolved and a new constitution was approved in a national referendum in May 1996. Under this constitution, the president held sole executive power, with the prime minister executing policies as directed by him. A new constitution, promulgated in August 1999, distributed power more equally between the president, the prime minister, and the National Assembly. The president’s term of office is now five years. The latest legislative elections were held in December 2004; the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD), the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism and allies (PNDS), and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS) hold the largest number of seats.

B.

Political Parties

The main parties are the MNSD and the CDS. Other main parties include the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism (PNDS), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), and the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP).

C.

Judiciary

District magistrates’ courts, labour courts, and justices of the peace are located throughout Niger; there are three courts of assize. The appeals court sits in Niamey. The High Court of Justice, empowered to try government officials, was authorized in 1991.

D.

Health and Welfare

In cooperation with the WHO, Niger is attempting to control such widespread diseases as malaria, yaws, and helminthiasis. The government enforces the provisions of some labour and health legislation, and operates hospitals, medical centres, and dispensaries. Most social welfare services, such as care of the aged, disabled, or orphaned children, are left to the complex, traditional tribal and family social system. In 2004 there were as many as 32,931 people per doctor; around 5 per cent of the country’s GDP is spent on health care (1990). In 2008 the infant mortality rate was one of the world’s highest at 115 deaths per 1,000 live births. The population growth rate is 3 per cent a year.

E.

Defence

The armed forces of Niger included about 5,300 personnel in 2004. Paramilitary forces numbered about 5,400. Niger has bilateral defence agreements with France.

F.

International Organizations

Niger is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the African Union (OAU).

VI.

History

During the Middle Ages the Niger region was on the central caravan route from North Africa to the Hausa states and the empires of Mali and Songhai, and an important centre of the salt trade. The area was therefore penetrated early by Muslim missionaries. The Hausa states were dominant in southern Niger from the 10th century until the early 19th century, when they were conquered by the Fulani under Usuman dan Fodio. Songhai was for 1,000 years the supreme power in the western part of the country, while the Kanem-Bornu Empire exerted a powerful influence in the east. In the 14th century the Tuareg populated the Aïr Plateau, where they subsequently established the sultanate of Agadez.

A.

Independence

The first Europeans to enter the area were the Scottish surgeon and explorer Mungo Park and the German explorers Heinrich Barth and Eduard Vogel. The French settled the area about 1890. It was made a military territory in 1900, an autonomous territory in 1922, and an overseas territory in 1946. Proclaimed an autonomous republic of the French Community in 1958, Niger became fully independent on August 3, 1960.

In 1960 Hamani Diori was elected to the presidency by the legislature. In 1964 the government crushed a rebellion aimed against the Diori regime, and in April 1965 the president survived an assassination attempt. He was re-elected in 1965 and 1970. Niger was one of six sub-Saharan nations affected by a five-year drought, which was broken by summer rains in 1973. Accused of corruption and of mishandling the famine, Diori was overthrown in a military coup d’état in April 1974. After the coup, Niger was ruled by a Supreme Military Council, headed by Lieutenant Colonel Seyni Kountché. His first priority was economic recovery after the drought, and to that effect a new agreement with France was concluded in 1977.

Plots and coup attempts occurred during Kountché’s first years in power, but by 1980 he was confident enough to release former president Diori from detention. Most Cabinet posts in the government were gradually filled by civilians, but a drop in uranium prices left Niger’s economy in a severely weakened condition. In November 1987 Kountché died and was succeeded in the presidency by Ali Seybou, the army chief of staff. Seybou was re-elected president in 1989 after introducing a new constitution that returned Niger to civilian rule under a single-party system. A wave of strikes and demonstrations in 1990 led him to legalize opposition parties. A constitutional conference, convened in July 1991, stripped him of his powers and established a transitional government, headed by André Salifou.

B.

Political Unrest

In 1992 a new constitution was approved by referendum. General elections in February 1993 resulted in an absolute victory for the Alliance of the Forces of Change (AFC), a coalition of eight parties. In presidential elections the following month Mahamane Ousmane, leader of one of the AFC parties, was elected president. The first 21 months of the new government were turbulent. The first AFC prime minister resigned in September 1994 after his party left the coalition, and his replacement (chosen by Ousmane) was unable to command a parliamentary majority and new elections were called for January 1995. The National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD—formerly the sole legal party), was the largest single party, with 29 seats, but had to enter a coalition with several other opposition parties to form a government.

The January 1996 coup superseded parliamentary elections scheduled for September of that year. Immediately following the coup, in which the Ousmane government was overthrown by Colonel Ibrahim Baré Mainassara, a non-military Cabinet was appointed with Boukary Adji, an economist, as prime minister. The new government and the ousted president agreed on a period of transition, replacing the National Assembly and unions temporarily with a “committee of sages”.

In April 1997 a new constitution was adopted, placing all executive power with an elected president; this was overwhelmingly supported by a national referendum held on May 12. In presidential elections held in July Mainassara gained 52 per cent of the vote, amid accusations by the newly revived opposition parties of electoral fraud. Although the parties decided not to take part in legislative elections scheduled for November, political rallies and access to the media were permitted. President Mainassara dismissed the government in November and ignoring opposition calls for a general election appointed Ibrahim Assane Mayarki as prime minister.

Mainassara was assassinated in an apparent coup by the presidential guard in April 1999. The National Reconciliation Council, a 14-member body of military officers set up immediately after the assassination, announced that Major Daouda Malam Wanké, the apparent coup leader and head of the presidential guard, had become Niger's new head of state.

C.

New Constitution

In an effort to democratize the country, a new constitution was proposed to the electorate in a referendum held in July 1999. More than 89 per cent of the voters approved the draft, which was then ratified in August. The constitution sought to establish a new, more equal balance of power between the president, the prime minister, and the legislature. In October and November presidential elections were held to replace the military junta of Major Wanké. Mamadou Tandja of the MNSD party won with 59.9 per cent of the vote; his rival, Mahamadou Issoufou of the PNDS received 40.1 per cent of the vote. The elections were crucial to restoring foreign aid to Niger. In December Major Wanké relinquished power to President Tandja, who, in January 2000, appointed Hama Amadou as prime minister.

In early 2001 the government survived a motion of no-confidence after student protests for improved conditions turned into violent clashes with police in which one official was killed and nearly 50 people were injured. The government closed Niger’s university and imprisoned several students, which provoked further demonstrations and calls by the opposition for the resignation of Prime Minister Amadou. There were widespread mutinies by soldiers in the east of the country and in the capital over a failure to pay the troops; they were swiftly put down by the army.

President Tandja won the first round of the presidential election in November 2004, but the narrow margin of victory meant that the election had to go to a run-off the following month. In the run-off Tandja secured more than 65 per cent of the vote. His political party, the MNSD, secured victory in the legislative elections held at the same time, capturing 47 seats. Seyni Oumarou was appointed the new prime minister in June 2007.