I.

Introduction

Yemen, officially Republic of Yemen, country in south-western Asia, on the south-western coast of the Arabian Peninsula, formed in 1990 through the union of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen and the Yemen Arab Republic. Yemen is bordered on the north by Saudi Arabia, on the east by Oman, on the south by the Gulf of Aden, and on the west by the Red Sea. The interior boundaries are mostly undemarcated. Yemen includes the islands of Socotra in the Gulf of Aden, Kamaran in the Red Sea, and Perim in the strait of Bab el Mandeb. The area of Yemen is about 527,970 sq km (203,850 sq mi). The capital of the Republic of Yemen is Sana’a.

II.

Land and Resources

The southern region of Yemen is hot and arid, with a coastline of about 1,200 km (745 mi) extending along the Gulf of Aden. The western area is semi-desert and has a coastline of about 450 km (280 mi) along the Red Sea. The interior is mountainous; abundant seasonal precipitation makes this the Arabian Peninsula’s rainiest area. In the south the coastal plain is a narrow, sandy, almost rainless area baked by high temperatures. Along the western coast a semi-desert region, the Tihamah, extends inland an average of 48 km (30 mi). Mountains, broken by deep valleys, and highland plateaux dominate the centre of the country, where abundant but irregular rainfall sustains an agricultural economy.

The highest mountain in Yemen is Jabal an-Nabi Shuayb, which rises to 3,760 m (12,336 ft) above sea level. The largest valley is Hadhramaut in the central region. The highlands have no permanent streams, but numerous wadis (watercourses that are dry except in the rainy season) have cut valleys and gorges in the terrain. Yemen’s most productive farmlands are found in the wadi areas and near springs and oases. Near the north-eastern border the elevations decrease, and the land is dominated by the great sandy desert of the Rub‘ al Khali (“Empty Quarter”).

A.

Climate

The climate of the coastal plains is hot and dry; the average annual temperature is about 27.7° C (80° F). Average annual rainfall is 76 mm (3 in) on the southern coast, 229 mm (9 in) on the western coast. Winds blowing north-west in summer and south-west in winter bring severe sandstorms. The mountainous interior has a temperate climate, and the winters are generally cool. Annual rainfall in the highlands ranges from approximately 406 to 762 mm (16 to 30 in).

B.

Natural Resources

Yemen has deposits of petroleum, copper, gold, lead, zinc, and molybdenum, at varying stages of exploration and exploitation.

C.

Environmental Concerns

Safe drinking water and sanitation services are rare in Yemen. Water scarcity is a chronic problem in some areas, and aquifers are under threat from saline intrusion. Salination problems are increased by the careless application of irrigation techniques.

III.

Population

The highland Yemenis are principally of Arab descent, as are the residents of the southern coast. Many people of the Tihamah coastal strip are of mixed Arab and African origin.

A.

Population Characteristics

Yemen has a population of 23,822,783 (2009 estimate), but many Yemenis live and work abroad. The overall population density is about 45 people per sq km (117 per sq mi). Most of the people live in or near small villages, where agriculture is the major occupation. In most of these areas the traditional tribe or clan is the main unit of social organization. The largest urban centre is the republic’s political capital, the walled city of Sana’a (population, 2003 estimate, 1,469,000); Aden (2006 estimate, 634,710) is the principal port and economic capital. Other major cities are Ta’izz (1995 estimate, 178,043), which is inland; Al Ḩudaydah (1995 estimate, 155,110), on the Red Sea; and Al Mukalla (1995 estimate, 154,360), on the Gulf of Aden. Life expectancy is around 61 years for men and 65 years for women.

B.

Religion

Almost all the people are followers of Islam. Residents of the northern, central, and eastern portions of the country are mainly of the Zidi community of the Shiite sect. Those in the southern and south-western parts belong to the Shafii community of the Sunni sect. Small populations of Hindus and Christians live in the south.

C.

Language

The official language is Standard Arabic, a second language learnt in schools and used in official domains. Sanaani Spoken Arabic and Ta’izzi-Adeni Spoken Arabic are the mother tongues of the majority of the population, as well as two other Arabic languages. Soqotri and Mehri (both Semitic languages) are first languages for small minority groups. As well as these indigenous languages, there are some immigrant communities who speak Hindi and Somali among other languages.

D.

Education

In the early 1990s the government was engaged in unifying the educational system following the union of the two Yemeni states. Adult literacy in 2007 showed a large gap between men (77 per cent) and women (40 per cent). In 2005 some 3,219,564 pupils were enrolled in primary schools and 1,455,206 in secondary schools. A total of 164,166 students were in higher education, which is provided by the University of Aden (1975), the University of Sana’a (1970), Ibb University (1996), Taiz University (1995), a school of Islamic law, an agricultural school, and six vocational schools. The library of the Great Mosque of Sana’a has in its collection some 10,000 manuscripts and printed volumes.

IV.

Economy

In southern Yemen most of the people are engaged in subsistence agriculture and fishing. This part of the country is the poorest in the Arab world. Following unification, exploitation of Yemen’s oil and gas reserves was expected to advance the economy. The cash economy is centred in the city of Aden, long the major petroleum bunkering port between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Aden declined in importance during the 1970s and 1980s as methods of transporting oil changed. In 1991 a free-trade zone was established in Aden in an attempt to revive the port, but this revival was hampered by the 1991 Gulf War. In central and northern Yemen by far the most important economic activity is agriculture, both for home consumption and for export. The country is heavily dependent on foreign aid, particularly for development of the country’s considerable oil and gas resources, which in 1993 provided 76 per cent of export earnings. Yemen’s large trade deficits have in the past been compensated for by foreign aid and remittances from Yemenis working abroad; however, since the Gulf crisis and the expulsion of Yemeni guest workers from Saudi Arabia, these have dropped substantially. Civil war and political instability have paralysed the economy; inflation soared to 100 per cent. In 1995 the rial was devalued.

Economic crises and the 1994 civil war have made northern Yemen dependent on imports for many of its essential needs, whereas the country was once self-sufficient in food production. Land once used for cash crops such as wheat has been turned over to growing qat, a mildly narcotic shrub which provides short-term profits but has no significant export market.

The gross national product (GNP) for Yemen in 2004 was US$11,218 million (World Bank figures), or US$870 per capita. The national budget of the unified Republic of Yemen in 1999 included revenues estimated at US$1,654 million, and expenditures estimated at US$1,786 million.

A.

Agriculture and Fishing

The principal food crops in southern Yemen include millet, wheat, melons, sesame, and barley. Cotton and, to a lesser extent, tobacco and qat, are among the few commercial crops.

The extremes of topography in northern Yemen permit a wide variety of agriculture, including grains, cotton, and many kinds of fruit and vegetables. Coffee is among the major agricultural exports. Dry farming is practised in extensive terraced fields in the highlands; irrigation projects were undertaken in the 1980s. Principal crops include sorghum, corn, oats, barley, dates, almonds, and grapes. Livestock-rearing, especially of cattle, sheep, and goats, is important in both north and south. The fish catch in 2007 was 250,000 tonnes. Newly developed fishing grounds in the Arabian Sea provide a growing source of earnings.

B.

Mining

Large copper deposits were discovered in 1969 near Ta’izz and in 1972 petroleum was found in the Tihamah. Oil began to be extracted from wells at Ma’rib in 1987. In 2004 petroleum production totalled 164 million barrels; 280,000 tonnes of salt and 80,000 tonnes of gypsum were produced in 1994.

C.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing in the south is dominated by a petroleum refinery in Aden. A small light-industrial sector provides goods for the local market. Northern Yemen is home to a few light industries; products include cotton textiles, cement, paints, and metal products. Local industries consist of weaving, tanning, spinning, and handicrafts.

D.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Yemen is the Yemeni rial (YRI) of 100 fils (201.66 YRI equalled US$1; early 2009). The government has phased out the dinar. The bank of issue is the Central Bank of Yemen.

E.

Commerce and Trade

The main imports are foodstuffs, machinery, and chemical products. Principal exports during the mid-1990s were petroleum, coffee, cotton, and hides and skins. Imports in 2007 totalled approximately US$6,793 million annually, while exports totalled approximately US$8,100 million.

F.

Transport

Yemen has no railways. In 1999 there were about 65,144 km (40,479 mi) of roads, 16 per cent of them paved. Many areas are inaccessible to vehicles. In 1997 there were 15 passenger cars per 1,000 people. In remote areas people rely principally on horses, donkeys, and camels for transport. Yemen has two international airports at Aden and Sana’a. The country’s long coastline has made possible the development of Aden and several other seaports. The Yemen Navigation Line runs cargo and passenger services to various African and Middle Eastern ports.

G.

Communications

In 1990 two government-owned daily newspapers, one in Sana’a and one in Ta’izz, were published. The state-controlled broadcasting service operates both radio and television stations. Only a small minority of the population owned a television (5,200,000 sets) or a radio (1 million sets) in 1997. Development of an integrated telecommunications network began after unification in 1990. Around 39 telephones per 1,000 people were in use in 2004.

V.

Government

In 1990, in accordance with a constitution drafted in 1981, the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) and the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) established a unified state. The transition government was headed by a five-member ruling council. The constitution, which provided for a multi-party elected parliament and declared that legislation was to be based on Islamic Shari’ah law, was approved by a referendum in May 1991. Elections were held in 1993, leading to a coalition government. A secessionist insurrection in the south in 1994 was soon crushed, confirming the government’s authority.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The president has executive power; the president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term. The legislative body, the House of Representatives, has 301 elected members, who serve six-year terms. In 1997 the president created a new upper house of 59 members who acted as a consultative council. After the referendum held in February 2001 the consultative council was dissolved and replaced with a Shura Council of 111 members. All citizens over age 18 are entitled to vote.

B.

Political Parties

The former ruling party, the Yemen Socialist Party (YSP), was ejected from the ruling coalition following the 1994 civil war. The largest party is the General People’s Congress (GPC), which increased its majority in the 2003 general election to 238 seats; its coalition partner from 1994 to 1997 was the Islamic Reform Grouping, but it now governs alone.

C.

Health and Welfare

In 1994 there were 4,549 people per doctor, while in 2009 the country had an infant mortality rate of 55 per 1,000 live births. In 1999, 4.4 per cent of government expenditure was spent on health care.

D.

Defence

In 2006 the armed forces of the Republic of Yemen totalled 66,700 personnel, including 60,000 in the army, 5,000 in the air force, and 1,700 in the navy. In 2001 conscription was abolished.

E.

International Organizations

Yemen is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Arab League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).

VI.

History

In ancient times the northern region of what is now the Republic of Yemen was considered part of the classical Arabia Felix (“Happy Arabia”). Before the Christian era, the Minaeans and the Sabaeans (whose kingdom was the biblical Sheba) held sway in the region, their economies bolstered by cultivation of frankincense and myrrh and trade in semi-tropical spices. The Sabaeans, who had founded their kingdom by 950 bc, were centred at Ma’rib, where they erected a large, elliptical temple. They were primarily irrigation farmers and built a great dam across the Wadi Dhana, by which they could water an area of some 65 sq km (25 sq mi). The Sabaeans have left numerous carved inscriptions, an innovation they seem to have introduced to the region.

To the north, the Minaeans, who founded their kingdom in the first millennium BC, with the capital at Karna (present-day Sadah), were the chief traders of incense through Al Ḩijāz before they were eclipsed by the Nabataeans in the 1st century bc. Further south were the kingdoms of Qataban, which in the late 5th century BC fell to the Sabaeans, and Hadhramaut. These southern kingdoms also participated in the lucrative incense trade. Shortly before the Christian era all these kingdoms were absorbed by the Himyarites, who traded at Muza on the Red Sea coast.

A.

New Religions

Jewish refugees began arriving in the Himyarite kingdom after the fall of Jerusalem in ad 70, and Christian missionaries from the 4th century AD. During the 330s the region was overrun by Ethiopians from the kingdom of Āksum, who held it until about 378. Christian Ethiopians returned about 525 after a Himyarite ruler of the Judaic faith began to persecute Christians in his realm. Half a century later the Ethiopian occupation gave way to Sasanian rule, and the country became a Persian satrapy. The collapse of the great dam at Ma’rib facilitated the infiltration of Bedouin from the Najd, who introduced Islam into the region around 630. After the conversion of South Arabia to Islam in the 7th century, the region yielded sovereignty to the caliphate, first the Umayyads, who ruled the Islamic empire from Damascus, and later the Abbasids from Baghdad.

B.

Local Dynasties

From the 9th century onward, the authority of the caliphs was practically defunct in Yemen as indigenous governors founded succeeding dynasties that exercised real control. The longest lasting of these was that of Yahya ibn al-Hussein, supposedly a descendant of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib. Yahya founded the Shiite Zaidi dynasty about 893, and it was from this house that the last imam (ruler) in the 20th century was descended. Zealots of the unorthodox Ismaili sect began to appear at the end of the 9th century; from there the sect spread and exerted great influence in North Africa in the form of the Fatimid movement, endangering the power of the Abbasid dynasty.

Followers of this movement, the Sulayids, ruled in the east in Sana’a and came to control Aden for a time, leading to rule there by the Shiite Zurayids until the orthodox Ayyubids invaded the area in 1173-1174 and took Aden, reuniting the region. In 1229 the Rasulids, the outstanding dynasty in southern Yemeni Islamic history, broke from the Ayyubids to rule independently. Their capital, Ta’izz, was famous for its monarchs’ diverse artistic and intellectual achievements. Aden flourished as a trade centre under their rule. The Rasulid dynasty broke down in the 15th century; and was replaced by the Tahirids, who controlled most of southern Yemen.

C.

Ottoman Rule and the British in Aden

In the 15th century the Portuguese came to Arabia, blockading the Red Sea trade routes and disrupting the economic status quo, but failing to take the city of Aden. This brought other trouble, as the Mamelukes and then, in 1517, the Ottoman Empire found it necessary to defend Yemen against the Portuguese. The Ottomans occupied the whole region, making their base in the town of Mocha, which then replaced Aden as the area’s chief port. In 1635 they were driven out of southern Yemen by the Zaidi imams, who ruled with Aden as their capital until the breakdown of the area into warring chiefdoms in 1735.

The Ottomans tried to reassert their authority in the Yemen in the 19th century, seeking to secure themselves against the Wahhabis in Arabia and Muhammad Ali in Egypt. By 1872 they had occupied the west, but the British, countering Muhammad Ali’s advances, had long since captured Aden (1839) from the sultan of Lahij. Aden began to develop again under the British, who ruled eastern Yemen from their Bombay “presidency”. After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, it became a major coaling station on the route to India.

D.

Independence and Division

After years of rebellion, northern Yemen was finally granted autonomy by Turkey in 1911. The region became independent in 1918 under the Zaidi imams, who laid claim to all of historic Yemen. Great Britain recognized its independence in 1925, and in 1934 signed a treaty guaranteeing its sovereignty. Building on treaty relationships established with the peoples in the surrounding area, the British then made Aden a protectorate and Crown Colony in 1937.

Northern Yemen was a founder of the Arab League in 1945, and it joined the UN in 1947. The following year the ruling imam, Yahya ibn Muhammad, was slain in a palace revolt. He was succeeded by his son Ahmad, whose claim to Aden resulted in repeated clashes with the British during the 1950s.

In 1958 six of the south Yemeni chieftains formed the British-sponsored Federation of South Arabia, which by 1965 included all of the region’s 17 states. But the imam’s rule in northern Yemen had in the meantime become insecure, and in 1961 an attempt on his life left him practically incapacitated; he died the following year. His son, Muhammad al-Badr, had ruled for only a week before he was overthrown by the army, which proclaimed the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) under the leadership of Colonel Abdullah al-Sallal. The deposed imam, who fled to Saudi Arabia, retained the loyalty of some Yemenis and received pledges of support from Saudi Arabia and Jordan in his efforts to regain his throne.

Fighting between republican troops and royalist forces continued through 1964 and involved hostilities between Egypt, which aided the republicans, and Saudi Arabia, which gave support to the royalists. By late 1964 signs of disagreement within the YAR republican government were evident, and Cabinet shifts became frequent.

In 1965 Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser met King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to consider a settlement of the civil war. The conference resulted in an agreement whereby both countries pledged to end their involvement and to arrange for a plebiscite to permit the people of the YAR to choose their form of government. Subsequent peace conferences, however, were fruitless, and the fighting flared up again in 1966.

E.

People’s Democratic Republic Formed

The Arab defeat by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967 brought basic changes in the YAR. At a later meeting of Arab foreign ministers, the Egyptian government proposed withdrawal of troops from the YAR, and a definitive Saudi-Egyptian agreement of disengagement was soon reached. By the end of 1967, despite President al-Sallal’s opposition, Egyptian troops had withdrawn from the country. Subsequently, al-Sallal was overthrown and replaced as president by Abdul Rahman al-Iryani. The British also withdrew from the Federation of South Arabia in 1967, under pressure from an armed nationalist movement, and the federation became independent as the People’s Democratic Republic of Southern Yemen.

The Marxist National Liberation Front, which had forced the British out, became the only recognized party in the People’s Republic. Its leader, Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi, was installed as president, but he was ousted in 1969 and replaced by Salem Ali Rubayi. In 1970 the country was renamed the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). A number of foreign-owned properties were nationalized, and close ties were established with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

F.

Insurrection and Conflict

The YAR and the PDRY agreed to merge in 1972, but tensions between the two states prevented the agreement from being carried out. Claiming that the YAR government had become ineffective because of a prolonged clash between President al-Iryani and the consultative assembly, military officers led by Colonel Ibrahim al-Hamidi staged a bloodless coup in June 1974. The YAR’s constitution was suspended, and executive power was vested in the Command Council, dominated by the military.

Colonel al-Hamidi, who assumed the presidency in 1975, was assassinated in October 1977. He was succeeded by Army Chief of Staff Ahmed Hussein al-Ghashmi. He in turn was killed in June 1978, by a bomb hidden in the briefcase of a visiting diplomat from the PDRY. Lieutenant-Colonel Ali Abdullah Saleh was then chosen as president. In the PDRY, Rubayi was deposed and executed in 1978; his successor, Abdel Fattah Ismail, was in turn replaced by Ali Nasser Muhammad al-Hasani in 1980.

Relations between the YAR and the PDRY remained tense and erupted in a brief war in early 1979. By March 29, 1979, however, the two countries had agreed on a plan for unification. Although no timetable was set, by the end of 1981 a constitution for the merged state had been drafted. However, a brief but violent civil war erupted in the PDRY in January 1986, ending in 12 days, and Hasani fled into exile. Former premier Haydar Bakr al-Attas was elected president in October 1986. Delayed by this civil strife, the unification accord was finally implemented on May 22, 1990. The YAR and the PDRY became the united Republic of Yemen, with Saleh as president and al-Attas as prime minister.

G.

Unification

Only a few months after its installation, the transitional government of the Republic of Yemen protested against the presence of foreign military forces massed in Saudi Arabia to counter Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. The Saudis then expelled 850,000 Yemeni workers, who returned to their homeland, increasing unemployment and adding to the new nation’s economic problems.

A 1991 referendum approved the new constitution, but political turmoil forced the government to postpone elections, which were finally held on April 27, 1993. The General People’s Congress (GPC), formerly the ruling party in the YAR, won 121 seats in parliament; the Yemen Socialist Party (YSP), formerly the ruling party in the PDRY, won 56 seats; a new Islamic coalition party, al-Islah (the Yemeni Alliance in Reform), won 62 seats; and the remaining 62 seats were won by minor parties and independents. The president and prime minister remained in office after the election, and the three major parties formed a coalition in the legislature.

H.

Civil War and its Aftermath

In April 1994 negotiations on power-sharing broke down between President Saleh and Vice-President Ali Salem al-Beidh, who had been prominent in the PDRY. Fighting broke out between northern and southern forces, which had remained separate since unification. Most of the fighting centred around the southern city of Aden.

In May al-Beidh announced that southern Yemen was seceding from the north and named a new southern government. Northern forces captured Aden in July, effectively ending the civil war. In October President Saleh was re-elected by electoral college votes; he then appointed a new council of ministers and formed a coalition government.

In 1995 serious clashes marked Eritrea's attempted invasion of the Hanish Islands, a small Yemeni-held archipelago at the entrance to the Red Sea. The dispute was eventually referred to an international arbitration panel, and in 1999 a resolution was announced in the Hague. The largest island, Greater Hanish, was returned to Yemen; the remaining small islands were divided between the two countries, with fishing rights being granted to Eritrean fishermen. The dispute resolution was internationally praised.

A border dispute with Saudi Arabia, including armed clashes, was temporarily resolved in February 1995 with a memorandum of understanding. Fighting continued on and off, however, until June 2000, when the 65-year-old dispute over land and sea boundaries was brought to an end. A “final and permanent” border agreement was signed by the Yemeni deputy prime minister and the Saudi foreign minister.

I.

General, Presidential, and Local Elections

Growing tensions between the coalition parties led to competition between them for seats in the general election held in April 1997. The GPC won an overwhelming majority; the election was marred by sporadic violence. A new government was formed following the resignation of the prime minister, Abdel Aziz Abdel-Ghani, who was replaced by Farag Said Ben Ghanem. In April 1998 Prime Minister Ghanem stepped down and was replaced by Abdul Ali al-Karim al-Iryani.

In the country’s first direct presidential election, in September 1999, President Ali Abdullah Saleh was unanimously re-elected for another term in office. Yemenis also had the chance to vote in the first local elections, held in February 2001, since unification. These were held alongside a referendum on the constitution, and as a result of it the presidential term was extended from five to seven years and the assembly’s members’ terms from four to six years. Additionally, conscription to the armed forces was abolished. Twenty-nine people were reported to have died in the violence during the elections. In March the president appointed Abd-al-Qadir Ba Jammal as the new prime minister.

Following a diplomatic incident in October 2000—when a terrorist attack on the USS Cole in Sana’a harbour led to the deaths of 17 US servicemen—and growing concerns in Yemen after the 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, D.C. that the country was believed to be a hideout for Al-Qaeda operatives, international pressure led the government to attempt to tackle the problem. In August 2002 a National Security Agency was established. However, in October 2002 in a purportedly similar incident to the USS Cole, a French supertanker, the Limbourg, was holed by a suspected terror attack, though the exact cause of the incident was disputed by the Yemeni government. Further exacerbation of US/Yemeni relations occurred when a shipment of Scud missiles en route from North Korea to Yemen was temporarily seized by the US Navy. In December three American missionaries were killed in Jibla.

In parliamentary elections held in April 2003, President Ali Abdullah Saleh's General People's Congress won 238 of the 301 seats; the Islah Party took 46 seats and the 17 other seats were spread among a number of smaller parties. Despite facing more competition than previously, President Saleh won the presidential election in September 2006 by a comfortable margin, securing more than 77 per cent of the vote.